Software-defined vehicles need security built into their architecture and maintained throughout their lives—not just a perimeter intended to keep attackers out. More software, connected entry points, supplier dependencies and post-sale updates create risks that can change after a vehicle leaves the factory. A sound foundation must manage those risks, protect safety-relevant systems, detect incidents across deployed vehicles and support safe recovery.
Why do software-defined vehicles need a new security foundation?
In a software-defined vehicle, software helps deliver and revise functions after production. That changes both the scale of the engineering challenge and the time span over which security must work. The vehicle’s exposure can involve wireless and wired connections, connected services, software dependencies and interfaces with suppliers; updates can also change software in vehicles already on the road.
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UNECE reported in a 24 June 2020 press release that vehicles could have up to 150 electronic control units and about 100 million lines of software code. It also projected 300 million lines of code by 2030. These are dated figures and a projection, not a current measurement of the vehicle fleet. UNECE’s 2020 announcement illustrates the scale challenge, but the security case does not depend on treating those numbers as current.
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1Scan for outdated or missing drivers - takes under a minute2Clear out junk files and repair common Windows errors3Fix the driver behind crashes, sound loss and screen glitchesNHTSA defines automotive cybersecurity as protecting vehicle electronic systems, communication networks, control algorithms, software, users and underlying data from malicious attacks, damage, unauthorized access or manipulation. The breadth of that definition matters: cybersecurity is not limited to protecting personal data or a single communications link. NHTSA’s automotive cybersecurity overview sets out the definition.
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What should a vehicle security foundation protect?
Security work should begin with a map of how systems connect and what an attacker might reach through each entry point. The priority is not to treat every component as equally consequential, but to understand how compromise could affect vehicle functions, data, users or other connected systems.
- Map the attack surface: include wired and wireless entry points, connected services, software dependencies and supplier interfaces.
- Prioritize safety-relevant controls: assess potential effects on safety-critical vehicle control systems and use layered protections around them.
- Manage dependencies: account for software and components supplied by other organizations, as well as the interfaces between systems.
- Plan to detect and respond: establish ways to identify attempted or successful attacks and coordinate response when an incident may affect multiple vehicles.
- Design for resilience: provide a way to contain problems and recover safely rather than relying on prevention alone.
NHTSA recommends a risk-based, layered approach, protection for safety-critical control systems, timely detection and response, and resilient architectures that support recovery. As the agency puts it, “A layered approach to vehicle cybersecurity reduces the possibility of a successful vehicle cyber-attack, and mitigates the potential consequences of a successful intrusion.” The point is both to make intrusion harder and to limit consequences if defenses fail. NHTSA’s vehicle cybersecurity guidance describes this approach.
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How do automakers secure over-the-air vehicle updates?
An update is a change to a safety-relevant, connected product after it is in service. The update process therefore has to address both cybersecurity and safe vehicle operation. A secure process establishes that an update is authentic and has not been altered, checks that it applies to the vehicle and is safe to install, executes it under appropriate conditions, and provides a recovery path if it fails.
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- Establish integrity and authenticity. Protect the update so the vehicle can verify that it is genuine and has not been modified.
- Check applicability and safety impact. Confirm that the update is intended for that vehicle configuration and assess whether installation could affect safe operation.
- Execute safely. Manage conditions such as sufficient power and avoid leaving the vehicle in an unsafe state during installation.
- Recover from failure. Plan for restoration or another safe recovery path if installation is interrupted or unsuccessful.
- Inform the user and document decisions. Provide relevant information to vehicle users and retain records of update decisions.
UNECE’s framework describes software-update management alongside cybersecurity, including integrity and authenticity, safe execution, recovery after failure, sufficient power and user information. UN Regulation No. 156 concerns software updates and software update management systems; it complements the cybersecurity focus of UN Regulation No. 155. UNECE’s overview of the regulations explains the paired framework. Exact legal obligations and implementation timelines depend on the relevant market and vehicle context.
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What does UN Regulation No. 155 require manufacturers to manage?
UN Regulation No. 155 concerns vehicle cybersecurity and a cybersecurity management system (CSMS). UNECE describes the framework as requiring manufacturers to identify and manage risks, verify that risks are being managed, keep assessments current, monitor attacks and respond to incidents. This makes cybersecurity an ongoing organizational responsibility, not a one-time design review.
The regulation and an engineering standard serve related but distinct purposes:
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| Instrument | Role | Scope and qualification |
|---|---|---|
| UN Regulation No. 155 | Vehicle regulation and cybersecurity management-system framework | Addresses regulatory management and type-approval context. Legal applicability depends on jurisdiction, vehicle category and approval context. |
| ISO/SAE 21434:2021 | Automotive cybersecurity engineering standard | Defines engineering requirements for managing cybersecurity risk across road-vehicle electrical and electronic systems through their lifecycle. Publication alone does not establish regulatory compliance or prove that a vehicle is secure. |
The EU’s consolidated publication identifies the text as Regulation 2025/5, incorporating valid text through Supplement 3, with an effective date of 10 January 2025. That publication does not settle applicability in every market or for every vehicle. Manufacturers and other readers should check the current legal status for the specific jurisdiction, vehicle category and approval context before drawing a compliance conclusion. The EUR-Lex consolidated publication provides the EU text; UNECE also publishes UN Regulation No. 155.
What is ISO/SAE 21434, and how does it relate to vehicle cybersecurity?
ISO/SAE 21434:2021, Road vehicles — Cybersecurity engineering, is an engineering standard for managing cybersecurity risk across road-vehicle electrical and electronic systems. Its lifecycle scope runs from concept and development through production, operation, maintenance and decommissioning. It gives engineering teams a structured basis for addressing risk as systems are designed and supported over time.
It is not the regulation itself, and using or citing the standard does not guarantee that a vehicle is secure. UN Regulation No. 155 addresses the cybersecurity management system and regulatory context; ISO/SAE 21434 addresses cybersecurity engineering across the system lifecycle. One should not be presented as a substitute for the other or for applicable local requirements. ISO’s page for ISO/SAE 21434:2021 describes the standard.
How can a vehicle respond when a cyber incident affects a fleet?
A fleet incident is not just a vehicle-by-vehicle repair problem. Manufacturers need a process to monitor for attacks, assess whether a vulnerability or incident affects other vehicles, coordinate a response and provide a safe way to contain or correct the issue. The response may involve software changes, but those changes must pass through the same update controls used for other safety-sensitive changes.
That is why monitoring and response belong in the security foundation from the start. A useful lifecycle loop links engineering risk assessments to what is observed in production and operation: investigate signals, reassess risk when conditions change, address the issue safely, and use incident and vulnerability findings to improve protections. UNECE’s R155 framework supports ongoing risk management, monitoring and response, while NHTSA emphasizes timely detection, response and resilient recovery. UNECE’s cybersecurity and software-update overview and NHTSA’s guidance describe these complementary priorities.
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