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Negative emissions mean removing carbon dioxide (CO₂) that is already in the atmosphere and storing it durably, with the full process removing more greenhouse gas than it emits. Capturing pollution from a factory or power plant before it enters the air can prevent emissions, but that alone is not atmospheric carbon removal. Carbon dioxide removal (CDR) can support climate goals; it cannot replace deep, rapid emissions cuts.
What makes an emissions technology “negative”?
A removal pathway must do two things: take CO₂ out of the atmosphere and keep it out of the atmosphere. The IPCC includes storage in geological, terrestrial or ocean reservoirs, and in products, within its description of CDR. A project’s gross captured CO₂ is not the same as its net removal: emissions from energy, materials, transport, land-use change and operations must be counted, along with whether the stored carbon stays put.
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This distinction separates CDR from carbon capture at a smokestack. Capturing fossil-fuel or industrial CO₂ before it reaches the air may reduce the source’s emissions, but it does not remove CO₂ that is already in the atmosphere. A process that uses biomass or other carbon-containing material also does not automatically qualify as negative: the result depends on where the material came from, what would otherwise have happened to it, and the emissions generated along the way.
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The IPCC identifies three roles for CDR alongside emissions abatement: lowering net emissions in the near term; balancing residual emissions that remain difficult to eliminate on the way to net zero; and, if removals exceed residual emissions, achieving net-negative emissions over the longer term. The scale and timing needed depend on the emissions pathway and the assumptions behind it. “Net zero” does not mean that every source has stopped emitting; it means remaining emissions are balanced by removals.
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In its 2022 assessment, the IPCC states that limiting warming to well below 2°C and achieving net-zero CO₂ or greenhouse-gas emissions will require anthropogenic CO₂ removal from the atmosphere. That is a role for CDR within mitigation—not evidence that removals can compensate for delaying or avoiding emissions cuts.
How the main removal approaches work—and what constrains them
Afforestation, reforestation and ecosystem restoration
Establishing forests where there were not recently forests, restoring forests, and rebuilding wetlands, peatlands or coastal ecosystems can increase or protect carbon stored in vegetation and soils. Agricultural soil practices can also build soil-carbon stocks. These biological approaches may bring ecological benefits, but outcomes depend on the site and management. Fire, drought, disease, later harvesting or land-use change can release stored carbon; poorly designed projects can also harm biodiversity or compete with food production. Planting trees is not, by itself, proof of additional, durable net removal.
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Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS)
BECCS uses biomass for energy, captures some of the CO₂ released during conversion or combustion, then stores it—typically in geological formations. It can produce net removal only if the carbon absorbed while the biomass grew exceeds emissions across the full chain, including cultivation, processing, transport, conversion and storage, as well as any land-use changes. Feedstock sustainability and the time taken for regrowth matter; bioenergy can increase or reduce emissions depending on how and where it is produced.
Direct air carbon capture and storage (DACCS)
DACCS uses chemical sorbents or solvents to capture CO₂ directly from ambient air. The captured CO₂ must then be stored, for example underground or through mineralisation. The IPCC assesses DACCS as more technologically mature than enhanced weathering and ocean-based approaches, but identifies cost and energy and water requirements as significant constraints. Low-carbon energy is important: emissions from powering a removal system reduce the amount of net CO₂ it delivers.
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Biochar
Biochar is a carbon-rich material made by heating biomass under controlled conditions. Applying or storing it can keep some of that biomass carbon out of the atmosphere. Its net and durable removal depends on the feedstock, production process and end use; a project-specific lifecycle assessment is more informative than a general claim that biochar permanently stores carbon.
Enhanced weathering
Enhanced weathering accelerates natural reactions by spreading crushed or reactive minerals. As the minerals weather, they consume CO₂ and can store carbon in dissolved forms or minerals. The IPCC assessed this approach as having low technology readiness in its 2022 WGIII assessment. Its potential therefore should not be read as evidence of established large-scale performance.
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Ocean-based removal
Proposed ocean approaches include increasing seawater alkalinity to enhance CO₂ uptake and biological methods such as ocean fertilisation. The IPCC identifies uncertain feasibility and possible marine side effects for ocean methods. A National Academies research-strategy listing in 2026 reflects that marine CDR remains an active research area, not that its methods are proven at large scale.
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What IPCC pathway numbers do—and do not—tell you
The figures below are modelled scenario results from the IPCC’s 2022 assessment, not forecasts, promised capacity or estimates of current deployment. They refer to scenarios limiting warming to 2°C with greater than 67% probability, or below. The AFOLU category is removal from agriculture, forestry and other land use, mainly through afforestation and reforestation.
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| Approach | Cumulative removal, 2020–2100 | Annual removal in 2050 |
|---|---|---|
| BECCS | 328 GtCO₂ (range: 168–763 GtCO₂) | 2.75 GtCO₂ per year (range: 0.52–9.45) |
| AFOLU removal, mainly afforestation and reforestation | 252 GtCO₂ (range: 20–418 GtCO₂) | 2.98 GtCO₂ per year (range: 0.23–6.38) |
| DACCS | 29 GtCO₂ (range: 0–339 GtCO₂) | 0.02 GtCO₂ per year (range: 0–1.74) |
The wide ranges show how strongly the modelled role of each method varies across pathways and assumptions. They should not be added up as if every method will reach its high-end value, or treated as a prediction of what will be built. The sources cited here do not establish a single current global deployment total.
How to judge whether a removal claim is meaningful
When comparing a project, policy or technology, ask the same questions of each. A headline tonne or price cannot answer them on its own.
- Is it atmospheric removal? Check whether the CO₂ comes from ambient air or recent biological uptake, rather than simply being captured at an emitting facility.
- What is the net amount removed? Look for lifecycle accounting that includes energy, feedstock, processing, transport, land-use effects and storage—not only the gross tonnes captured.
- Where is the carbon stored, and for how long? Geological storage and biological storage have different durability profiles. Forest and soil carbon can be reversed by disturbance or changed land management; no storage claim should be treated as permanent without evidence and monitoring.
- What resources and scale are required? Consider land, biomass, minerals, energy and water, along with the practical limits on supplying them without shifting emissions or environmental pressure elsewhere.
- What happens to ecosystems and communities? Weigh possible co-benefits against risks such as biodiversity loss, marine impacts or competition with food production.
- Can the result be verified over time? Credible measurement, reporting, verification and governance are needed to track removal, detect reversals or leakage, and account for stored carbon consistently.
These questions are especially important for biological pathways and BECCS, where land management and feedstock choices can change the outcome. They also matter for engineered approaches: DACCS still needs low-carbon energy and dependable storage, while emerging mineral and ocean methods face greater uncertainty about performance and effects.
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