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Quantum networks transmit quantum states—often qubits encoded in photons—rather than simply copying ordinary bits from one point to another. They can use quantum properties such as superposition and entanglement in communication protocols, but those same properties make signals difficult to store, route and extend. Today’s work is largely focused on specialized research systems and the engineering needed to make them reliable; quantum networks are intended to complement, not replace, classical networks.
What information does a quantum network send?
A classical network represents information as bits, such as 0s and 1s. A quantum network transports quantum states, commonly photonic qubits. A qubit may be encoded in a photon’s polarization or another physical property. Unlike an ordinary bit, a quantum state can involve superposition, and quantum systems can also be entangled with one another.
That does not mean every message is sent as a single photon containing a complete, readable sentence. A sender prepares quantum states for a particular protocol; a receiver may measure them or use them as part of a larger operation. The protocol can also require ordinary classical messages for coordination and to communicate measurement results. NIST describes classical control and communication protocols as necessary parts of quantum-network architecture.
How does quantum communication work?
- Prepare a state. A sender or network node creates a quantum state and encodes a qubit in a carrier such as a photon.
- Transmit the carrier. The photon travels through an optical fiber or a free-space link. Loss and environmental disturbance can degrade the state.
- Use the state or shared entanglement. The receiver measures a state or uses it in a protocol. In entanglement-based approaches, distant nodes share correlated quantum systems that serve as a resource for communication.
- Coordinate classically where needed. Network nodes exchange ordinary classical messages to coordinate operations and interpret outcomes.
The exact sequence depends on the protocol. For example, a properly designed and operated quantum network can use measurement disturbance and the no-cloning principle as part of a security design. That does not make every quantum link automatically secure: the protocol, devices and operation matter.
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Why can’t a quantum network just amplify a weak signal?
A classical repeater can measure an incoming signal and regenerate a clean copy. An unknown quantum state cannot be perfectly copied, so a network cannot simply duplicate a qubit at each intermediate point in the same way. Measuring it can also change the state, which prevents a straightforward measure-and-regenerate approach.
Quantum repeaters are being developed to extend network reach using entanglement distribution and related quantum operations. They are not drop-in replacements for classical repeaters, and their development does not mean a finished, general-purpose quantum internet is already available. The Department of Energy explains the repeater challenge and approach in its quantum networks explainer.
What equipment and engineering do quantum networks need?
NIST identifies several elements under development for quantum networks. The pieces must work together: generating states is not enough if photons cannot be detected, stored or coordinated across nodes.
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- Sources of nonclassical light to generate the quantum states used by a network.
- Single-photon detectors to register individual photons and their relevant properties.
- Quantum memories to hold states while other photons or network nodes are prepared.
- Repeaters to help extend reach through entanglement distribution and other quantum operations.
- Transducers to help connect systems or wavelength bands.
- Supporting protocols for error correction, communication and synchronization.
Entanglement is fragile. Loss, noise, phase instability and environmental effects can destroy coherence, making transmission, storage and processing difficult. NIST’s quantum networks program describes work on managing, distributing and manipulating entangled photons while addressing impairments introduced by the environment.
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What has been demonstrated so far?
A specific NIST report dated July 18, 2025, describes phase stabilization on a fiber link spanning more than 120 kilometers between NIST and the University of Maryland in College Park. The team reported that its method worked with fewer than one million photons per second reaching the destination. Those numbers describe that experiment—not a general range or throughput available across quantum networks.
The demonstration addressed a particular engineering challenge: stabilizing phase without overwhelming faint quantum signals with strong laser light. NIST physicist Sergey Polyakov described that as a major hurdle for long-distance faint-light communication, including quantum networks. The result is evidence of progress on a research link, not proof of an integrated, multi-hop, general-purpose network.
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What are quantum networks for?
NIST identifies three envisioned application areas, while emphasizing that application research is ongoing.
- Quantum cryptography: Quantum states and measurement properties can support communication protocols designed to detect certain forms of eavesdropping.
- Distributed quantum sensing: Connected quantum systems may be used to coordinate measurements across locations.
- Connecting quantum computers: Networks could link quantum processors so they can share quantum resources.
These are potential uses, not a claim that each is already broadly deployed. The DOE describes quantum networks as complementary to classical networks: conventional networks remain suited to ordinary data communication, while quantum links would support tasks that rely on quantum states or entanglement.
How do fiber and free-space quantum links differ?
Quantum networking research includes more than one kind of channel. Fiber links send photons through optical fiber; free-space approaches transmit through the atmosphere or space. NASA Glenn’s Quantum Communication 101 describes free-space transmission as a research focus for long-distance networking and entanglement distribution. These approaches are not interchangeable in every setting: the channel affects how a network handles loss and how its nodes must be engineered.
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How should you judge a quantum-network claim?
A reported link distance, component result or laboratory demonstration does not by itself establish the performance of a complete network. When comparing claims, check what was actually built and what task it performed.
- Carrier and channel: Was the link based on fiber, an atmospheric path or a space link?
- Network task: Was it designed for cryptography, distributed sensing or connecting quantum processors?
- Range-extension method: Was it a direct link with loss limitations, or did it use repeater approaches involving entanglement and memory?
- System maturity: Was the result a component test, a single-link demonstration, a testbed or an integrated multi-hop system?
NIST describes ongoing protocol and testbed work, while DOE describes repeaters and multi-hop network building blocks as technologies under development. Treat a result in that context: a working component or research link is meaningful progress, but it is not the same as a general-purpose network ready to replace everyday internet service.
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