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X-ray phase-contrast tomography and computational virtual unwrapping let researchers inspect writing inside fragile, carbonized Herculaneum scrolls while leaving them physically rolled. Early studies recovered partial Greek readings; later projects have gone further, but scanning is not the same as automatically translating an entire library.
Why the Herculaneum scrolls are so difficult to read
The scrolls were buried and carbonized during the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE. Found at the Villa of the Papyri in the mid-18th century, the collection includes Greek philosophical and literary works, among them texts associated with Philodemus. The National Endowment for the Humanities describes about 1,800 scrolls in the collection (NEH project page).
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Carbonization preserved the papyrus in a form that is exceptionally fragile. Layers have been compressed, folded, and tangled together; physically opening a scroll can damage or destroy it. There is also an imaging problem: carbon-based ink and carbonized papyrus have similar compositions, so conventional X-ray absorption tomography may not provide enough contrast to separate writing from the surface.
How can scientists read a scroll without unrolling it?
Tomography collects X-ray measurements from many angles and uses them to reconstruct a three-dimensional volume. In the 2016 study, researchers used synchrotron X-ray phase-contrast tomography at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF). Phase contrast makes subtle differences in how X-rays pass through materials more visible than absorption alone, helping researchers detect traces that might otherwise blend into the carbonized papyrus (Bukreeva et al., 2016; ESRF report, 2015).
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The resulting scan is not a readable page. Specialists must identify the papyrus layers in the volume, segment them, and computationally flatten the surfaces into images that can be inspected for ink. Because the material is twisted and distorted, reconstructing a flat view can involve substantial manual or semi-manual work. Irregular surfaces can also distort letter shapes, so some readings remain proposed interpretations rather than certain transcriptions.
What does “virtual unwrapping” mean?
Virtual unwrapping is a digital process: software maps and flattens layers from the scan so that researchers can examine their surfaces without physically opening the object. The scroll itself remains rolled. It is therefore different from both physical unrolling and an automatic translation system.
- Scan: collect tomographic X-ray data from the intact scroll.
- Reconstruct: assemble the measurements into a three-dimensional volume.
- Map and flatten: identify the papyrus surfaces and computationally render them for inspection.
- Read and interpret: examine ink traces, transcribe legible Greek, assess uncertain letters, and interpret the text using scholarly expertise.
Machine-learning methods may assist with tasks such as detecting ink, but imaging, surface reconstruction, transcription, and historical interpretation are distinct steps. A scan does not independently supply a fluent, verified translation.
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What has tomography revealed in the Herculaneum scrolls?
| Milestone | What was reported | What it does—and does not—show |
|---|---|---|
| 2015 ESRF report | Phase-contrast tomography revealed Greek letters and words, including almost an entire alphabet from one sample (ESRF report). | An early demonstration of the imaging approach, not a complete reading of a scroll. |
| 2016 study | Researchers reported Greek letter sequences, words, textual portions, and a coronis—a sign marking a textual division—in two unopened rolls, PHerc. 375 and PHerc. 495 (Bukreeva et al.). | Partial readings, not complete editions or translations. The authors attributed both rolls to Philodemus with high probability based on handwriting; PHerc. 495 might be part of his On Rhetoric, but that identification was presented as a possibility (study discussion). |
| 2023–24 reports | The NEH reports that researchers identified the Greek word porphyras (“purple”) and then decoded the first full passage from the scrolls (NEH project page). | A significant advance beyond isolated letters and partial readings; it does not establish that the entire collection is readable. |
| 2026 Vesuvius Challenge announcement | The challenge announced that PHerc. 1667 had been completely virtually unwrapped and read for extended scholarly study (Vesuvius Challenge). | A later milestone in the field, distinct from the limited findings in the 2016 study. Scholarly evaluation remains part of an evolving process. |
Can X-rays read all the Herculaneum scrolls?
No general success rate or percentage of the collection that can be read has been established in the cited accounts. The results vary with the condition and structure of each scroll, the visibility of ink in the scan, the quality of layer reconstruction, and the ability of specialists to interpret damaged or distorted traces. One fully unwrapped scroll does not mean that all roughly 1,800 are now readable.
The method matters because it can reveal evidence that physical inspection cannot safely reach. Its output still needs careful transcription and interpretation, and gaps or ambiguous letters may remain even when a surface has been digitally flattened.
Independent reader supportYour contribution helps us test, update, and keep practical guides available for everyone.What books were found at the Villa of the Papyri?
The collection contains Greek philosophical and literary works, including material associated with Philodemus. The available evidence does not justify treating every scroll as the work of one author or assigning an uncertain roll to a particular book as fact. In the 2016 study, the Philodemus attribution for PHerc. 375 and PHerc. 495 was considered highly probable based on handwriting, while the suggestion that PHerc. 495 belongs to On Rhetoric remained tentative (Bukreeva et al., 2016).
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