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Free space optics (FSO) is wireless communication that transmits information using light through open space between a sending terminal and a receiving terminal. It does not need a continuous fibre cable between those terminals, but the beam must reach the receiver and the equipment must operate as designed.
How free space optics works
A transmitter encodes information onto an optical signal and directs it toward a receiver. The receiver detects the light and decodes the information. In spacecraft communications, NASA describes optical communications as using laser-transmitted light rather than radio frequencies; common wavelengths include near-infrared examples such as 1064 nm and 1550 nm. NASA SmallSat Institute
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FSO names the wireless optical link, not a particular networking protocol. It is also distinct from fibre: fibre carries light inside a physical cable, while FSO sends light across an open path. Terrestrial interface standards may address both FSO and fibre interfaces. ITU-T G.641 work item
Where FSO is used
Space communications
Optical links can support spacecraft communication functions such as uplinks for commands, downlinks for data, and crosslinks between spacecraft. NASA also uses the terms “laser communications” and “lasercom” in this context. NASA SmallSat Institute
Terrestrial communications
On Earth, FSO can be considered for short-reach links such as mobile backhaul, or where laying cable is impractical, including temporary or emergency connections and paths across geographic obstacles. These are possible applications, not guarantees that a link will be available or dependable at a given site. ITU-T G.641 work item
What affects an FSO link
Because the beam is narrow, terminals need accurate pointing and alignment. The same narrow beam can support high-capacity communications, but it makes the path and mounting important. NASA: Laser Communications
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For terrestrial links, the atmosphere can attenuate or disturb the signal. Clouds and weather, turbulence-related scintillation, ambient light, path characteristics, and terminal mounting all matter. ITU-R’s terrestrial FSO design recommendation covers these factors, along with geometrical and atmospheric attenuation and link-margin calculation. ITU-R P.1814-1, September 2025
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FSO compared with radio and fibre
| Connection type | What carries the signal | Key practical consideration |
|---|---|---|
| FSO | Optical light across open space | Requires a clear, accurately aligned optical path; terrestrial performance is affected by atmospheric conditions. |
| Radio frequency (RF) | Radio waves | Uses radio-frequency bands rather than an optical carrier; the right comparison depends on the system and deployment. |
| Fibre | Optical light inside a physical cable | Needs a cable route; it is not a wireless link. |
Optical systems have much narrower beams than RF systems and can offer substantial bandwidth potential, but that does not establish a specific throughput advantage for every real-world installation. NASA identifies higher data rates as a potential advantage of optical communications while also noting pointing accuracy and atmospheric interference as challenges. NASA: Laser Communications NASA SmallSat Institute
FSO is therefore not automatically a replacement for RF or fibre. The choice depends on the route, weather exposure, required availability, link budget, and whether terminals can be mounted and aligned reliably. No general cost or availability figure follows from the technology definition alone.
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Standards that address FSO design and compatibility
- ITU-R P.1814-1: A September 2025 recommendation covering prediction methods for terrestrial FSO link design, including weather, attenuation, scintillation, ambient light, mounting, and link margin. Recommendation details
- ITU-T G.641: A work-programme item for terrestrial FSO mobile backhaul with short-reach interfaces, covering FSO and fibre interfaces; the page lists approval on November 29, 2025. Work item details
- ITU-T G.640: An in-force recommendation, dated March 2006, describing a procedure to assess interference between co-located FSO transmission systems. Recommendation details
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