Hot liquids produced higher measured particle counts than cold water in one multi-material cup experiment, but the difference depended on the cup and test method. The available studies do not establish a universally lowest-release cup or show that particles measured in a cup test cause illness.
What one multi-material cup experiment found
Akbulut et al. (2024) tested polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), expanded polystyrene (EPS) and polyethylene-coated paper cups. The researchers used ultrapure water at 4, 50 and 80 °C and varied contact time from 0 to 20 minutes.
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- Counts at 50 °C and 80 °C were significantly higher than at 4 °C in this experiment.
- The counts at 50 °C and 80 °C were not significantly different from each other.
- In the detailed analysis, exposure time alone was not statistically significant.
The reported average across tested conditions was 556.80 ± 31.39 particles per litre. The lowest reported result was 126.6 ± 75.71 particles per litre for a polyethylene-coated paper cup at 4 °C and zero minutes; the highest was 1,420 ± 380 particles per litre for a PP cup at 50 °C and 20 minutes. These are results under that study’s protocol, not estimates for every cup or drink.
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| Study and test | Reported result | How to interpret it |
|---|---|---|
| Akbulut et al. (2024): PP, PS, EPS and polyethylene-coated paper cups with ultrapure water at 4, 50 and 80 °C; contact times of 0–20 minutes | Average: 556.80 ± 31.39 particles/L across tested conditions. Minimum: 126.6 ± 75.71 particles/L for polyethylene-coated paper at 4 °C and zero minutes. Maximum: 1,420 ± 380 particles/L for PP at 50 °C and 20 minutes. | Findings apply to the tested cups, water and measurement protocol; they are not a universal per-cup ranking. |
| Ranjan et al. (2021): hot water held in a paper cup for 15 minutes | Approximately 25,000 micron-sized particles per 100 mL; the study also reported a much larger sub-micron count using electron microscopy. | The particle-size ranges and detection methods differ from other studies, so the count cannot be directly compared with the Akbulut results. |
| 2025 meta-analysis: 237 observations across 30 peer-reviewed studies; separate PE versus PE-coated-paper case study | Temperature-related release varied by polymer. The case study found fewer counted particles from the coated-paper cups at 5 °C and 60 °C. | This synthesis and case study do not establish a universal ranking of cup materials. |
Why “paper versus plastic” is not a settled ranking
A paper cup may have a plastic lining; the word “paper” on its own does not show that a cup is plastic-free. Nor does a result for one coated-paper sample settle how another cup will perform. A 2025 meta-analysis found that temperature-related release varied by polymer, and its PE versus PE-coated-paper comparison was a specific case study—not a general rule for all cups.
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Other work has examined LDPE- and PLA-lined paper cups, but the available abstract does not provide enough detail for a quantitative comparison. A 2026 study summary describes tests of PP, PET and PS cups using different temperatures, contact times and food simulants. Results involving ethanol simulants should not be treated as results for ordinary coffee or tea.
To compare studies fairly, check the cup construction, liquid temperature and type, contact time, particle-size threshold, detection method and measured endpoint. Particle release, chemical migration and health outcomes are different measures; a particle count alone does not answer all three.
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What the particle counts do—and do not—say about health
Cup experiments measure particles found in test liquid. They do not by themselves establish how much a person absorbs, whether a dose causes illness, or the clinical risk of drinking from a particular cup.
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration says: “There is not sufficient scientific evidence to show that microplastics and nanoplastics from plastic food packaging migrate into foods and beverages.” The FDA also says detection and characterization methods are not standardized and that current scientific evidence does not demonstrate a human-health risk from the levels detected in foods. That is a statement about the limits of current evidence, not proof that every exposure is harmless.
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The World Health Organization’s 2019 report concerns microplastics in drinking water, not cup-specific exposure. It provides context on evidence limitations and research needs; it is not a verdict that disposable cups are safe or unsafe.
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If you want to reduce disposable-cup use
Consider a reusable glass mug or stainless-steel travel mug. A 2021 paper-cup study recommended reusable glass and steel cups, but it did not test those mugs against disposable cups or establish zero exposure. Treat them as a practical alternative, not a medical intervention.
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Do not treat pre-washing as a proven safety fix
In the Akbulut et al. experiment, pre-washing reduced counted particles by 52–65% under that study’s protocol. This result does not establish that household pre-washing reliably reduces exposure or improves health.
Keep claims proportional to the evidence
Current cup studies support discussing particle release under specific test conditions. They do not establish that a cup “poisons” a drink, prove disease from the measured counts, show that paper cups are categorically safer or worse, or demonstrate that a particular reusable product eliminates exposure.
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