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For most organizations with distributed users, cloud services, and a need to limit access by application, zero trust is the stronger direction; a VPN can still serve systems that depend on network-level access. They are not mutually exclusive: zero trust is an access architecture, while a VPN is a connectivity mechanism. Choose based on what users need to reach, what your applications can support, and whether your organization can operate identity- and device-aware policies.
What zero trust and VPN mean
Zero trust is an access architecture
NIST describes zero trust as a shift from defenses centered on static network perimeters toward protecting users, assets, and resources. Its core principle is that network location or asset ownership alone should not confer trust: a user or device should be authenticated and authorized before accessing an enterprise resource. The definition appears in U.S. NIST Special Publication 800-207, published in 2020: NIST SP 800-207.
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In practice, a zero-trust approach uses identity and relevant context to make access decisions for specific applications or resources. It is not a single product, and adopting a product marketed as “zero trust” does not by itself create the architecture.
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A VPN provides network connectivity
A VPN can create a protected connection that gives a remote user access to a network or network resources. Depending on its configuration, that may provide broader connectivity than access to one application. A VPN is not inherently incompatible with zero trust; the question is whether network membership is being treated as sufficient trust, rather than one input among others in a resource-specific access decision.
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How to choose between zero trust and VPN access
| Decision factor | Zero-trust approach | VPN approach |
|---|---|---|
| Scope of access | Can grant access to a specific application or resource. | Can provide network-level connectivity, which may expose a broader set of resources depending on configuration. |
| Identity and device context | Access decisions can use identity, device posture, and policy signals rather than relying on network location alone. | A VPN can be paired with strong identity checks, but joining the VPN should not automatically be treated as authorization for every reachable resource. |
| Legacy compatibility | Works best when applications and identity systems support resource-specific controls; older systems may need exceptions or an intermediary. | May suit systems or workflows that require network-level connectivity. |
| Compromised account or device | Resource-specific policies can limit what the compromised identity can reach; the outcome depends on policy design and enforcement. | Potential exposure depends on reachable network resources and segmentation. A VPN connection alone does not establish how much access an account receives. |
| Cloud, partner, and remote access | Designed to make resource access decisions without assuming that users or resources sit inside a central office perimeter. | Can support remote access, but organizations need to assess how consistently its controls cover cloud services, partners, and other access paths. |
| Operational readiness | Requires usable identity and device information, clear policy ownership, logging, support capacity, and a migration plan. | May remain operationally necessary for existing dependencies, but configuration, monitoring, and access scope still require attention. |
| User experience and resilience | Policy and authentication choices affect user friction, application performance, recovery, and continuity if access-control services are unavailable. | Connection setup and performance affect users; continuity depends on the VPN service and the applications and networks it supports. |
When each approach is a better fit
Favor a zero-trust direction when access needs to be granular
- Your workforce, devices, and services are distributed across offices, homes, cloud environments, or partner organizations.
- You need to authorize users for particular applications or resources rather than give broad network access by default.
- You want access decisions to account for authenticated identity and device or policy context, not simply the user’s network location.
- You are trying to reduce the potential reach of a compromised account or device through narrower access permissions.
NIST identifies remote users, bring-your-own-device use, and cloud assets outside enterprise-owned boundaries as drivers for zero-trust approaches. These are architectural reasons to reconsider perimeter-based assumptions, not proof that one approach will eliminate breaches.
Keep VPN access where network-level connectivity is still needed
- A legacy application or workflow depends on reaching network resources rather than being accessed as an individually controlled service.
- Identity-aware access controls are not yet available for a particular system, and a managed VPN remains an operational requirement.
- You need time to inventory dependencies, test replacement access paths, and train support teams before changing how users connect.
Keeping a VPN for defined use cases is compatible with a zero-trust direction. Set boundaries around those use cases and avoid treating a successful VPN connection as blanket authorization to unrelated resources.
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Why VPN risk depends on configuration
CISA’s joint network access guidance, published in June 2024, addresses vulnerabilities and threats associated with traditional remote access and VPN deployments, including business risk from misconfiguration. It presents zero trust, security service edge (SSE), and secure access service edge (SASE) as modern approaches to network access security. That is a reason to assess and improve remote-access controls—not a finding that every VPN is insecure or must be removed.
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How to move toward zero trust without breaking access
The sequence below is a practical migration approach, not a mandatory sequence prescribed verbatim by NIST or CISA. Use the frameworks as planning references, then adapt the work to your systems and risk priorities.
- Inventory users, devices, applications, data, and dependencies. Identify who needs each service, which devices are used, where resources are hosted, and which applications depend on network-level connectivity.
- Separate resource access from network access. Mark which services can be protected individually and which still require a network connection. Record why a VPN exception is needed and who owns it.
- Strengthen identity controls. Ensure identities are managed and access is appropriately authenticated. Use multifactor authentication (MFA) as part of the identity-control plan. A FIDO2 security key is one possible authenticator; neither NIST nor CISA requires a particular key or brand, and a key alone does not create zero trust.
- Define and test access policies. Specify who can reach each resource and which identity, device, or other policy signals matter. Pilot the policies with a small user group or application, check expected and denied access, and provide a recovery path for legitimate users who are blocked.
- Expand in stages and review exceptions. Use pilot results to refine policies before extending coverage. Keep documented exceptions for systems that cannot move yet, monitor them, and revisit them when application or identity capabilities change.
Frameworks and implementation guidance
CISA’s maturity model offers a planning roadmap
CISA’s Zero Trust Maturity Model Version 2, published in April 2023, organizes planning around five pillars and three cross-cutting capabilities. It was developed as guidance for U.S. federal agencies. Other organizations can use it as a maturity framework, but it is not a universal private-sector mandate.
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NIST’s implementation guide provides examples, not a universal blueprint
NIST SP 1800-35, published in June 2025, documents implementation guidance developed through the National Cybersecurity Center of Excellence (NCCoE). NIST reports that the work involved 24 technology collaborators and includes 19 example implementations. Those examples show ways to integrate commercially available technology; the counts describe the guide’s demonstrations, not adoption levels, product rankings, or a design that fits every organization. See NIST’s project page for implementing zero-trust architecture.
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Use zero-trust principles as the direction when your organization needs consistent, identity-aware access to distributed resources. Keep VPN access for specific systems that still require network connectivity, with its scope and owner documented. The transition should follow application dependencies and operational readiness—not a blanket rule to replace every VPN immediately.
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