The Tool Desk
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Get oriented before you change anything
A terminal command runs in the context of the current account and directory. Confirm both before working with files or using administrative privileges.
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whoamiprints the current username.pwdprints the current working directory.hostnameprints the system’s host name.cd PATHchanges the working directory;cdwithout a path usually returns to the account’s home directory.lslists directory contents. For more detail,ls -lshows a long listing;ls -aincludes hidden entries.historyshows commands recorded by the current shell, where history is enabled.man COMMANDopens the installed manual page when one is available.COMMAND --helpoften gives a shorter option summary.
Options can differ between implementations and versions. For standard GNU file and text utilities, consult the GNU Coreutils manual, while treating the server’s own manual and help output as the practical reference for its installed command.
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Use the least disruptive command that answers the question. Configuration files and logs may contain credentials, personal information, or other sensitive data; do not paste their contents into public channels.
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cat FILEprints a file’s contents. It is convenient for short files, but can flood the terminal when the file is large.less FILEopens content in a pager so you can move through it; pressqto quit.head FILEprints the beginning of a file, andtail FILEprints its end. For an active log,tail -f FILEfollows new lines until interrupted.grep 'TEXT' FILEsearches file contents for matching text. Options such as case-insensitive matching vary by implementation; check local help.find PATH -name 'PATTERN'searches a directory tree for names that match a pattern. Start at the narrowest useful path to avoid an unnecessarily broad search.tarcreates or reads tar archives. Its options and combinations can be less intuitive than basic file commands; inspectman tarbefore extracting an unfamiliar archive or writing over existing files.
Copy, move, create, or remove files carefully
These commands change data. Before running one, confirm the source, destination, and current directory; be particularly careful with recursive operations and options that overwrite or remove files.
cp SOURCE DESTINATIONcopies a file. Use a deliberate destination and check whether it already exists.mv SOURCE DESTINATIONmoves or renames a file. A destination that already exists may be replaced, depending on options and implementation.mkdir DIRECTORYcreates a directory. Options such as-pcan create missing parent directories as well; verify the path first.rm FILEremoves a file. Recursive removal can delete a directory tree, and recovery may not be straightforward. Never add recursive or force options casually.
For permissions, inspect the existing owner and mode before using a permission-changing command. chmod 777 is not a general-purpose fix: it grants read, write, and execute permissions to everyone. Set only the access the task requires. The GNU Coreutils manual documents common file operations, removal, and permission utilities.
Check storage without confusing filesystem space with folder size
df -h reports space usage for mounted filesystems in human-readable units. du -sh PATH estimates the space attributable to a particular path. They answer different questions: a filesystem can be nearly full even when one folder looks small, and a directory estimate need not match space consumed on the underlying device. Both commands are documented in the GNU Coreutils manual.
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Inspect system identity, uptime, memory, and processes
uname -aprints kernel and system information.uptimereports how long the system has been running and includes load information.wholists users currently logged in, as represented by the system’s session records.free -hreports memory and swap figures in human-readable units on common Linux installations. It may not be installed everywhere.ps auxdisplays a process snapshot using a common Linux form; available formats and columns can differ.topprovides a live, updating view of processes and resource use. Pressqto quit.
Process listings can help identify what is running, but do not terminate a process based only on a matching name. First identify its owner, purpose, and relationship to the service or task at issue.
Check network configuration, sockets, and reachability
ip addrdisplays network interfaces and their addresses.ip routedisplays routing information.ss -tulpninspects listening TCP and UDP sockets and associated process information where permissions allow. Some details may require elevated privileges.ping HOSTsends reachability probes to a host when the utility is installed and the network permits them.
A failed ping alone does not establish that an application or server is down: a firewall or network policy may block ping while allowing the service’s traffic. These commands inspect different layers—addressing, routes, listening sockets, and basic reachability—and no single one proves that an application is healthy.
Independent reader supportYour contribution helps us test, update, and keep practical guides available for everyone.Inspect services and their logs on systemd systems
systemctl is for systems running systemd; other Linux installations may use a different service manager. On a systemd server, substitute the actual unit name for SERVICE:
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- Check the unit with
systemctl status SERVICE. This displays its state and status details. - Review its journal entries with
journalctl -u SERVICE. Use the local manual for options to narrow output by time or follow new entries. - Only after understanding the status and relevant logs should you consider a change such as restarting the service. Confirm the unit name and impact first.
The systemctl manual documents service-unit operations. Access to service details and logs may depend on permissions and local configuration.
Use this first-look sequence on an unfamiliar server
Run these inspection commands one at a time, reviewing each result before proceeding. They are intended as an initial orientation, not a substitute for investigating a specific incident.
whoami— identify the account.pwd— confirm the current directory.hostname— identify the host.uname -a— inspect system and kernel information.uptime— see runtime and load information.df -h— check mounted filesystem capacity.free -h— inspect memory, if available.ps aux— take a process snapshot.ip addr— inspect interfaces and addresses.ss -tulpn— inspect listening sockets; process details may require permission.
For a particular service problem, follow with systemctl status SERVICE and journalctl -u SERVICE only if the server uses systemd. Prefer observation first; use sudo only for a specific administrative task that needs it, and understand the effect before changing files, permissions, or service state.
Quick Recap
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