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1Clear out junk files and repair common Windows errors2Fix the driver behind crashes, sound loss and screen glitches3Repair Windows errors before they cause bigger problemsHTML “entities” are more precisely called character references: ampersand-led sequences that represent characters in places where HTML permits them. Use a named reference such as ©, a decimal reference such as ©, or a hexadecimal reference such as ©. For reliable markup, match named-reference capitalization and include the terminating semicolon.
What are HTML character references?
“HTML entity” is the familiar informal term; the HTML Standard calls the syntax a character reference. It begins with an ampersand and stands for one or more Unicode code points in contexts where references are recognized. It is not a universal escape mechanism: whether a sequence is interpreted as a reference depends on where it appears in the HTML.
References are useful for writing characters that would otherwise be awkward or ambiguous in markup. For instance, a literal less-than sign can be written as <, and an ampersand that could begin a reference can be written as &.
Three forms of character reference
| Form | Syntax and example | When it is useful | Important detail |
|---|---|---|---|
| Named | © represents © |
When a known name makes the markup easier to read | Names are case-sensitive. Use the spelling and capitalization in the official named character references table. |
| Decimal numeric | © represents code point 169 (U+00A9, ©) |
When you know the code point in decimal | Numeric values have restrictions, and invalid values have defined parser recovery behavior. |
| Hexadecimal numeric | © represents code point U+00A9 (©) |
When your Unicode reference gives the code point in hexadecimal | Write x or X followed by hexadecimal digits. The same numeric restrictions apply. |
The decimal form consists of &#, one or more decimal digits, and a semicolon. The hexadecimal form consists of &#x or &#X, one or more hexadecimal digits, and a semicolon. For authoring, numeric references must not denote a carriage return, a noncharacter, or a control character other than ASCII whitespace.
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Named references are not always one name to one code point: some names map to two Unicode code points, and the table includes historical aliases. For an uncommon symbol, look up the exact name rather than relying on a short cheat sheet. Named and numeric forms are alternative spellings, not options with a documented rendering or performance advantage.
Use semicolons and exact spelling
Write the semicolon at the end of a character reference. Although HTML parsing recognizes certain historical spellings without one, that compatibility behavior is not the recommended authoring form. Named references are case-sensitive, so preserve the table’s capitalization; a different case may not be the same name.
The parser uses the longest matching named reference. In ordinary text, for example, ¬it; is parsed as ¬ followed by it;, while ∉ is the complete reference for ∉. A semicolonless match in an attribute is subject to an additional rule, so the same-looking sequence can behave differently depending on context. These details are reasons to use complete, semicolon-terminated spellings rather than depending on parser recovery.
Escape a literal ampersand in attributes
If an ampersand in markup is followed by text that could be recognized as a reference, encode the literal ampersand as &. This is especially important in attributes such as URLs. The Standard’s example <a href="?art©"> yields an attribute value containing ?art©, not the intended literal ?art©. Write <a href="?art&copy"> to preserve the literal query text.
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Repair common Windows errors and clear accumulated junk for a smoother, more stable PC - no reinstall needed.Free scan · no reinstallIn attributes, a semicolonless named-reference match is not consumed when it is followed by an ASCII letter, digit, or equals sign. That exception does not make omitted semicolons dependable: use the semicolon after a reference, and encode a literal ampersand where ambiguity is possible. The Standard’s introduction to fragile syntax constructs explains this authoring concern.
What happens to invalid numeric references?
Numeric syntax does not guarantee that every number represents a valid, usable character. Under the HTML parsing rules, null, out-of-range, and surrogate values are parse errors that are resolved to U+FFFD, the replacement character. Some control values are remapped according to a table in the parser rules. Check that a numeric value is a valid code point before using it; do not assume the digits will produce the character you intended.
Independent reader supportYour contribution helps us test, update, and keep practical guides available for everyone.Quick reference for common characters
- Less-than sign:
<or numeric<. - Greater-than sign:
>or numeric>. - Ampersand:
&or numeric&. - Copyright sign:
©,©, or©.
The named spellings above are shown with their required semicolons. For additional names and their mapped code points, use the WHATWG reference table.
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