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This guide shows how to choose the context, write rules and conditions, select termination and redirect flags, prevent loops, and avoid open redirects and unsafe proxying.
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How mod_rewrite processes a request
mod_rewrite is Apache’s rule-based URL manipulation engine. Processing begins with RewriteEngine On. Apache then evaluates RewriteRule directives in the order they appear. A rule’s RewriteCond directives, when present, must be satisfied before that rule runs.
Each rule has a pattern and a substitution. The pattern matches the requested path; the substitution identifies another path or resource. The result can remain inside Apache as an internal rewrite, or it can become an HTTP redirect that tells the client to make a new request.
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Because rules are sequential, ordering is part of the design. Put narrow canonicalization rules and exclusions before broad catch-all routing rules. Otherwise, a general rule may consume a request before the specific rule that was meant to handle it.
Apache’s introduction to the module describes this rule-and-condition model in detail at the mod_rewrite introduction.
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The most important choice is whether the browser should see a new URL.
| Operation | What Apache does | What the browser displays | Typical purpose |
|---|---|---|---|
| Internal rewrite | Maps the request to another resource inside the server. | The original URL remains in the address bar. | Serve /about from an application file such as about.php. |
| External redirect | Returns a 3xx response containing a destination URL. | The browser changes to the destination and makes another request. | Move an old public URL to a canonical article path. |
An internal rewrite is appropriate when the public URL is already correct and only the implementation path needs to change. A redirect is appropriate when clients, bookmarks, search engines, or caches must learn a different canonical address.
For redirects, choose the status deliberately. [R=301] means a permanent redirect; permanent responses can be cached, so do not use that status for a temporary experiment.
Apache’s remapping guide explains the distinction between internal remapping and redirects at the URL remapping documentation.
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Choose the configuration context first
Main server or virtual-host configuration
If you administer Apache, put rules in the main server configuration or the relevant virtual host. This gives you control over the main rewrite-processing phase and makes the complete rule set visible in one administrative location.
.htaccess per-directory configuration
Use .htaccess when your hosting arrangement does not grant access to the main configuration. The directory must permit the required overrides through its AllowOverride settings; if overrides are not allowed, Apache will not apply the directives from the file.
Per-directory processing is different. Apache removes the directory prefix before matching a RewriteRule, so a pattern usually omits the leading directory path and leading slash. A rule in the document root can therefore match about with ^about$, while a rule in a nested directory is matched relative to that directory.
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The technical explanation of this phase difference is in Apache’s mod_rewrite technical details. The remapping guide also identifies .htaccess as the option for restricted-access hosting at the remapping guide.
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| Question | Use server or virtual-host configuration | Use .htaccess |
|---|---|---|
| Do you control Apache’s main configuration? | Yes; this is normally the clearer location. | Not required. |
| Is main configuration access restricted? | No. | Yes, provided AllowOverride permits the directives. |
| What path does the pattern match? | The server-level request path rules for that context. | The path after the current directory prefix has been removed. |
| What should you verify after moving a rule? | Whether the pattern’s slash and processing phase still fit. | Whether the relative pattern and per-directory re-entry behavior are correct. |
Write a first internal rewrite
Start with the smallest rule that demonstrates the desired mapping. The following root-directory example maps the public /about URL to about.php without changing the browser’s address:
RewriteEngine On
# Internal rewrite: the browser keeps /about
RewriteRule ^about$ about.php [END]The exact pattern and termination flag must match the configuration context and Apache version. In a document-root .htaccess file, ^about$ matches the path after the leading slash has been removed. In another directory or in server configuration, adjust the pattern to that context.
What each part means
RewriteEngine Onactivates rewriting for the context.^about$anchors the match so only the complete pathaboutis selected, not a longer path containing that text.about.phpis the internal substitution. Apache serves that resource while the client continues to request/about.[END]terminates per-directory rewrite processing, which is useful when an internal mapping would otherwise be re-entered by another per-directory pass.
Write a permanent redirect
To move an old public URL, return a redirect instead of silently serving a different resource:
RewriteEngine On
# Permanent redirect: the browser changes to /articles/about
RewriteRule ^about-old$ /articles/about [R=301,END]The R=301 flag sends a permanent redirect response. The destination begins with a slash, making it a path on the same host. Keeping the destination relative to your own site also avoids accepting an arbitrary host from request data.
Use a permanent status only when the old address should stay retired. Because clients and intermediaries may cache a 301 response, changing your mind later can require clearing caches or waiting for them to expire.
Canonicalization order
Place narrow canonical redirects before broad application routing. For example, a rule that handles one retired path should appear before a catch-all rule that sends every remaining request to an application entry point. This ordering prevents the catch-all from hiding the redirect and makes the intended URL policy explicit.
Add conditions for request-dependent rules
A RewriteCond immediately before a rule restricts when that rule is eligible. Conditions are useful when the decision depends on request metadata or whether a filesystem resource exists.
Leave existing files and directories alone
A common front-controller layout sends only unmatched paths to an application. The following pattern is illustrative; adapt the substitution to your site’s entry file and directory layout:
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RewriteEngine On
# Route only requests that are not existing files or directories
RewriteCond %{REQUEST_FILENAME} !-f
RewriteCond %{REQUEST_FILENAME} !-d
RewriteRule ^ index.php [END]The two conditions require both tests to be true: the requested filesystem path is not an existing file and is not an existing directory. Existing assets and directories can therefore be handled normally, while the remaining path is passed to index.php. The exact condition syntax and substitution must match your layout.
How to reason about conditions
- Read conditions together with the rule immediately below them; they do not globally affect later rules.
- Keep exclusions above a broad catch-all so the catch-all cannot capture a request that should bypass it.
- When moving rules between contexts, recheck what
%{REQUEST_FILENAME}represents and whether the directory prefix has already been removed.
Apache’s introduction documents the sequential relationship between conditions and rules at the mod_rewrite introduction.
Understand the flags that control processing
Flags in square brackets change what happens after a rule matches. The most consequential choices for URL rewriting are termination, redirect status, and URL-mapping handoff.
| Flag | Effect | Use it when |
|---|---|---|
[L] |
Stops the current round of rewrite processing. | You want no later rule in the current pass to run. |
[END] |
Stops all per-directory rewrite processing. | You are in .htaccess and need to prevent another per-directory rewrite pass from re-entering the rule set. |
[R=301] |
Sends a permanent redirect response. | The public URL has permanently moved and clients should request the new address. |
[PT] |
Passes the result back through URL mapping. | The rewritten result must be considered by directives such as Alias. |
[L] and [END] are not interchangeable in per-directory configuration. [L] ends the current round, but another per-directory round can still occur; [END] is the stronger stop for that context. Apache documents these and other flags at the RewriteRule flags reference.
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Flags are comma-separated, as in [R=301,END]. Choose only the behavior you need. A redirect generally needs a redirect status and a termination choice; an internal mapping generally needs termination appropriate to its context, but not an R flag.
Prevent rewrite loops
A loop occurs when a rewrite causes Apache to process a path again and the same or another rule rewrites it back. Per-directory rules are especially prone to re-entry because they run in a later phase and can be evaluated again after an internal mapping.
Use exact patterns
Anchor simple paths with ^ and $ so a rule intended for one URL does not match its own output or unrelated paths. Broad patterns make it difficult to predict which rule will run next.
Terminate the right processing scope
Use [END] for a per-directory rule when stopping all per-directory rewrite processing is required. Use [L] when ending only the current round is intentional. The choice should reflect whether another pass is expected, not merely serve as a generic habit.
Keep exclusions before catch-alls
Rules for existing files, directories, health endpoints, or other paths that must bypass application routing belong before the broad route. This prevents a catch-all substitution from feeding an already-handled resource back into the rewrite engine.
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Separate internal mappings from canonical redirects
An internal substitution should resolve to a resource without constructing a new public URL. A canonical redirect should point to the final public path and should not redirect back to the URL that triggered it. Check both sides of every redirect pair for that possibility.
Secure substitutions and redirects
Prevent open redirects
Do not build a redirect destination from unvalidated user input. Restrict destinations to trusted hosts or to relative paths on your own site. Apache gives this warning explicitly:
“If a RewriteRule constructs a redirect URL using unvalidated user input, an attacker can craft a link that redirects visitors to a malicious site while appearing to originate from your domain.”
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Read the full warning in Apache’s mod_rewrite introduction. Backreferences are convenient, but a captured host, scheme, or path should not be allowed to select an arbitrary destination.
Do not create user-controlled proxy targets
A user-controlled backreference must not determine an arbitrary target for the [P] proxy flag. Doing so can let an attacker make the server request internal or unintended systems, creating a server-side request forgery risk. Constrain proxy destinations to an explicitly trusted set instead.
Restrict filesystem mappings
A broad capture such as (.+) can accept far more path data than the application needs. Prefer restrictive character classes and explicit path structure when mapping URL data to the filesystem. Keep normal Apache <Directory> protections in place so a rewrite cannot turn a crafted path into unintended file access.
Treat backreferences as untrusted data
Any portion of a request captured by a rule should be considered attacker-controlled until constrained. Validate the characters and shape you actually need, avoid passing captures into redirects or proxy targets without controls, and do not assume that a visually ordinary URL is safe merely because it came through Apache.
Design a maintainable rule set
Start with a written URL policy
List the public URLs that must remain valid, the URLs that are permanently retired, and the resources that should bypass application routing. This separates policy decisions from regular-expression mechanics.
Order from narrow to broad
- Place exact canonical redirects first.
- Add security or exclusion conditions for resources that must not be routed.
- Add specific internal mappings.
- Put the broad application catch-all last.
Keep substitutions unambiguous
Use a destination that clearly identifies either a local resource for an internal rewrite or a trusted public path for a redirect. Avoid mixing canonicalization and application routing in one opaque rule; separate rules make status codes and loop behavior easier to audit.
Document context assumptions
Record whether a snippet belongs in server configuration, a virtual host, the document root, or a nested .htaccess directory. The same-looking pattern can match a different string after Apache removes a per-directory prefix.
Troubleshoot a rule that does not work
The rule works in httpd.conf but not in .htaccess
- Confirm that
AllowOverridepermits the rewrite directives in that directory. - Remove the leading directory path from the pattern as required by per-directory matching.
- Check whether the rule is running in a later phase and whether another rule has already changed the request.
- Review the order: a preceding rule may terminate processing or route the request before yours is reached.
The browser URL does not change
That is expected for an internal rewrite. If the browser must display a different address, use an external redirect flag such as [R=301] and provide the intended public destination.
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The browser changes URL unexpectedly
Look for an R flag on a rule intended only to select an internal resource. Also check whether a later canonicalization rule is being reached because the earlier rule did not terminate the current processing round.
A redirect repeats or alternates between two URLs
- Compare the redirect destination with the pattern that triggered it; the destination must not satisfy the same redirect condition.
- Check scheme, host, slash, and path canonicalization rules as one set rather than independently.
- Ensure that a broad rule is not rewriting the redirected path back into the old form.
- For per-directory rules, consider whether
[END]is required to stop re-entry.
Static files are sent to the application
Place file and directory exclusions before the catch-all and verify that the filesystem tests describe the actual document-root layout. A condition that points at the wrong path can make every request look like a missing resource.
An Alias target is not reached
If the rewritten result must go back through Apache’s URL-mapping stage so an Alias can handle it, use [PT] as appropriate. Confirm that the resulting URL and the alias are compatible with the configuration context.
A practical deployment checklist
- Select the context. Prefer the main server or virtual-host configuration when you control it; otherwise verify that the target directory allows the required
.htaccessoverrides. - Enable the engine. Add
RewriteEngine Onin the applicable context. - Write the narrowest rule. Anchor the path and choose an internal substitution or a trusted redirect destination.
- Add conditions only where needed. Put each
RewriteConddirectly above the rule it governs. - Order the rules. Canonical redirects and exclusions come before specific routes, with a catch-all last.
- Select termination. Use
[L]for the current round or[END]to stop all per-directory processing when loop prevention requires it. - Choose redirect permanence carefully. Use
[R=301]only for a genuinely permanent public-URL move. - Audit user input. Constrain redirect hosts, proxy targets, and filesystem captures; never let unvalidated backreferences choose arbitrary destinations.
- Exercise each path. Request the old URL, the new URL, an existing file, a missing file, and a nested path. Check both the HTTP result and the browser’s displayed URL.
- Recheck after moving contexts. A rule copied between server configuration and
.htaccessmay need a different pattern because per-directory prefixes are handled differently.
Reference snippets
Internal page mapping
RewriteEngine On
RewriteRule ^about$ about.php [END]Use this shape when /about is the desired public address and the server-side implementation is about.php.
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RewriteEngine On
RewriteRule ^about-old$ /articles/about [R=301,END]Use this shape when clients should leave the old address and request /articles/about instead.
Application fallback with resource exclusions
RewriteEngine On
RewriteCond %{REQUEST_FILENAME} !-f
RewriteCond %{REQUEST_FILENAME} !-d
RewriteRule ^ index.php [END]Use this as a starting pattern only after confirming that the application entry point and filesystem layout match your deployment.
Quick Recap
Final decision guide
- Choose an internal rewrite when the public URL is correct and only the server-side resource should differ.
- Choose an external redirect when the public URL has changed and clients must learn the new address.
- Choose server or virtual-host configuration when you administer Apache and want control over the main processing phase.
- Choose
.htaccesswhen main configuration access is restricted and overrides are enabled. - Choose
[END]over[L]when per-directory re-entry could create a loop. - Use
[PT]when another URL-mapping directive, such asAlias, must process the rewritten result. - Reject any design that lets unvalidated request data select an external redirect host, proxy destination, or unrestricted filesystem path.
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