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Scientists identify lunar pits in orbital images, then combine surface mapping with thermal, radar, and gravity measurements to test whether a pit may connect to a subsurface void. A dark opening alone is not proof of a cave or lava tube: the pit is directly observed, while much of the underground structure must be inferred.
How scientists find candidate lunar pits
The search begins with images from the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera’s Narrow Angle Camera (LROC NAC). An automated algorithm can scan large collections of high-resolution images for openings and depressions whose appearance is consistent with pits. NASA reported in 2014 that its then-known catalogue contained more than 200 pits, ranging from about 5 meters to more than 900 meters across. Those figures describe the catalogue at that time, not a current count.
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Image coverage and lighting affect what can be found. A suitable Sun angle helps reveal a pit’s walls and floor; very high latitudes are harder to survey, and small features may be difficult to identify confidently at NAC resolution. Even when an opening is clear, appearance alone does not establish how it formed. As NASA quoted Arizona State University researcher Robert Wagner saying, “from their appearance in the LRO photos alone, there is little evidence to point to any particular cause.” NASA’s 2014 account of the pit search explains both the image-based method and its limits.
How orbital instruments characterize a pit
Stereo images and elevation data map the surface
Scientists can image the same feature from different angles on separate LRO orbits. Stereo pairs from LROC NAC, reported by NASA at 0.5–2 meters per pixel for high-resolution stereo imagery, support 3D surface views and topographic maps. These products help characterize rim shape, walls, surrounding terrain, and possible overhangs. The Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter (LOLA) measures elevations and slopes, adding a separate way to describe terrain geometry. NASA’s LRO science and data page describes the mission’s imagery and topography resources.
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Thermal measurements test how a pit behaves
LRO’s Diviner Lunar Radiometer measures thermal infrared emission, which scientists use to map surface temperatures and compare sunlit and shaded areas. A 2022 study by Tyler Horvath and colleagues used Diviner observations and models to examine the Mare Tranquillitatis pit. The authors estimated shaded temperatures near 17°C (63°F) and modeled a possible cave whose temperature would vary by less than 1°C along its length over a lunar day. These are site-specific, model-based results—not measurements showing that every lunar cave has a mild or stable temperature. The authors cautioned, “Although we cannot be completely certain of a cave’s existence through remote observations…” The 2022 study presents the thermal analysis and its uncertainty.
Radar can probe below the visible floor
Optical cameras cannot see through solid rock, but radar returns can provide evidence about subsurface structure. In 2024, NASA reported that a reanalysis of Mini-RF radar data collected by LRO in 2010 found evidence of a cave extending more than 200 feet (about 60 meters) from the base of the Mare Tranquillitatis pit. NASA said the full extent is unknown; the possibility that it could stretch for miles is not a mapped measurement. NASA’s 2024 report describes the radar finding and its limits.
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Gravity and radar sounding provide other kinds of evidence
At Marius Hills, a different line of evidence has been discussed. A 2022 paper summarizes earlier GRAIL gravity observations that showed a mass deficit along the rille hosting a pit, along with follow-up observations from SELENE’s Lunar Radar Sounder that detected a transition between solid material and an empty cavity. Together, these results support the possibility of an extended lava-tube system in that setting. They are not the same result as the Mini-RF evidence at Mare Tranquillitatis: the sites and instruments differ, so their findings should not be merged into one claim about a single cave. The 2022 paper discusses the Marius Hills context.
What the evidence can—and cannot—show
Each instrument answers a different question. Images establish that a surface opening is present; stereo imagery and altimetry describe its shape and surrounding relief; thermal measurements constrain surface and shaded conditions; radar and gravity can support an interpretation involving subsurface voids. Agreement among independent measurements can strengthen an interpretation, but it does not automatically reveal a cave’s full dimensions or prove that every pit is an entrance to a continuous lava tube.
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- Observed: the pit’s visible rim, walls, and any floor or shadows that the images resolve.
- Measured or mapped: surface elevations, slopes, image-based geometry, and thermal behavior at the resolution and conditions of the observations.
- Inferred: a possible void, conduit, or connection between the pit and a larger underground system.
- Not established by a pit image alone: the pit’s cause, whether an accessible cave continues below it, or the cave’s complete length and layout.
For these reasons, “pit” is the careful term for the visible feature. “Possible cave,” “inferred conduit,” or “evidence consistent with a lava tube” is more accurate for interpretations beneath the surface unless a specific finding supports a stronger statement.
What pit walls reveal about lunar history
A pit can be scientifically valuable even if its subsurface connection remains uncertain. In some images, the exposed walls show layers that would otherwise be buried. NASA quoted Wagner describing walls that “cut through dozens of layers,” evidence supporting the view that the lunar maria formed from many thin lava flows rather than a few large ones. NASA’s account discusses this geological record.
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Those visible layers and a possible cave are separate subjects of study. A lander or rover could examine exposed stratigraphy to investigate mare volcanism, while work near the floor could look for openings or features hidden from orbital view. NASA has also noted that ground-level investigation could help determine layer ages and search for ancient solar-wind particles preserved in lunar material. Such details cannot be established just by seeing a pit from orbit.
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Remote observations can narrow down what a pit might contain, but a robotic investigation could inspect lower walls, floor-level openings, and interior conditions that are difficult or impossible to resolve from orbit. That would help distinguish a shallow collapse from a deeper void, map accessible routes, and characterize the interior directly. Until such observations are available for a particular site, cave dimensions and continuity should remain qualified according to the evidence supporting them.
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