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What does the 662% figure cover?
The estimate comes from Isabel O’Brien’s investigation for The Guardian, published 15 September 2024 and amended 18 September 2024. It compares estimated location-based emissions from in-house data centers at Google, Microsoft, Meta and Apple with the figures those companies reported for 2020–2022. The Guardian described the result as “probably” 662% higher, reflecting incomplete disclosures and analysis rather than a complete, directly observed inventory.
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Despite the headline’s reference to AI, the estimate is not specific to AI computing. It concerns data-center electricity emissions for the stated companies, facilities and years. It does not quantify water use, land impacts, hardware manufacturing, all outsourced data-center activity or the full environmental footprint of AI.
Why can two emissions figures differ so much?
Location-based accounting
This method applies the average emissions intensity of the electricity grid where a company consumes power. It is intended to reflect the emissions associated with the electricity used at that location.
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Market-based accounting
This method reflects electricity choices documented through contractual instruments, which can include energy attribute certificates such as renewable energy certificates (RECs). Such certificates convey attributes of generated energy; they are not the electricity itself. The Guardian’s criticism is that certificates may come from generation far from a data center, so the associated renewable generation may not be on the grid serving that facility.
The methods answer different accounting questions. Using certificates does not, by itself, establish that a company broke the accounting rules or intended to mislead. The GHG Protocol Scope 2 Guidance executive summary says that, in markets with qualifying contractual instrument data, companies shall report Scope 2 using both location-based and market-based methods. Its guidance also sets quality criteria for instruments, including market boundaries, tracking and retirement, and timing.
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What do the company examples show?
The Guardian reported these 2022 comparisons for data-center-related Scope 2 emissions. Values are metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO₂e):
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| Company | Market-based figure | Location-based figure | What the comparison represents |
|---|---|---|---|
| Meta | 273 | More than 3.8 million | In-house data-center Scope 2 figures reported by The Guardian for 2022. |
| Microsoft | 280,782 | 6.1 million | Data-center-related figures reported by The Guardian for 2022. |
These examples illustrate the scale of the accounting difference reported for those companies; they should not be treated as equivalent to a complete company-wide footprint or as measurements of emissions from AI alone.
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Why Amazon is not in the 662% calculation
The Guardian excluded Amazon from the four-company, 662% data-center estimate because its data-center-specific emissions could not be isolated. The investigation separately described Amazon as the largest emitter among the five companies; that statement does not mean Amazon was included in the headline calculation.
The article also reported a different aggregate: location-based emissions were 275% higher, or 3.75 times the official Scope 2 figures, across the five companies for 2020–2022. For that comparison, Amazon’s official figures were used for 2020 and 2021 because location-based figures were unavailable. This five-company aggregate is not interchangeable with the four-company, in-house-data-center estimate.
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How complete are the disclosures?
The Guardian said only Google and Meta directly published location-based Scope 2 figures, and only for one subtype. It inferred likely data-center gaps for Google and Apple from broader Scope 2 comparisons where company-specific data-center emissions were unavailable. Those are estimates, not direct disclosures of the missing data-center figures.
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The investigation was amended on 18 September 2024 after Apple clarified that it had only partially audited its location-based Scope 3 figure. An earlier version wrongly attributed Apple’s gap to data centers; that withdrawn claim should not be treated as established.
How to assess a later emissions claim
Before comparing company figures or studies, check whether they use the same:
- Accounting method: location-based or market-based.
- Facility boundary: in-house data centers or third-party and colocation facilities as well.
- Scope: Scope 2 electricity emissions or Scope 3 emissions elsewhere in the value chain.
- Period: the same reporting year or years.
- Evidence type: a company’s direct disclosure or an analyst’s inference.
- Workload definition: data centers generally or AI workloads specifically.
A separate capacity statistic cited by The Guardian puts data centers at 37% of worldwide data-center capacity in 2022, with half of that capacity provided through third-party contracts. This is capacity context, not an emissions share.
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Jay Dietrich, research director of sustainability at Uptime Institute, told The Guardian that location-based accounting “gives an accurate picture of the emissions associated with the energy that’s actually being consumed to run the data center” and that Uptime considers it “the right metric.” This is Dietrich’s view, not a formal position attributed here to the GHG Protocol.
Does the estimate describe emissions today?
No. The figures concern 2020–2022, before much of the subsequent AI buildout. They are not current-year emissions and do not forecast what today’s data centers emit. Any newer comparison needs its own reporting period, facility boundary and accounting method to be clear.
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