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The short answer: design for the network, not for a headline number
District heating is not one standardized system. Each network operator sets temperatures for supply, return, pressure, flow and control at the point where a heat source connects. A source that is useful on a low-temperature network may need substantial upgrading before it can serve a higher-temperature system.
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Data centers commonly reject heat at temperatures well below the network’s supply requirement. The recovered stream therefore usually passes through a heat exchanger and a heat pump. The heat pump extracts heat from the data-center loop and delivers it at the network’s specified temperature. The required output could be around 60–75 °C in one university application, 70 °C in a documented Braunschweig configuration, or as high as 120 °C in a modeled high-temperature configuration. None of those values is a universal district-heating rule.
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The receiving network’s operator must provide the design target. It may specify a supply temperature, an allowable injection temperature, a return-temperature limit, minimum and maximum flow, and seasonal operating ranges. A feasibility study should use those values at the physical connection point rather than assume that a published demonstration applies unchanged.
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Source temperature and delivery temperature are different measurements
Source temperature is the temperature of the water or other fluid carrying heat away from the data-center cooling system. Delivery temperature is the temperature of the water entering, or being injected into, the district-heating network. The first does not tell you the second without knowing the heat-exchanger arrangement and heat-pump lift.
| Term | What it describes | Why it matters |
|---|---|---|
| Data-center source temperature | Cooling-water temperature available to the recovery system | Sets the heat pump’s inlet condition and affects efficiency |
| Network supply target | Temperature the district-heating operator requires on the supply side | Determines how much temperature lift is needed |
| Network return temperature | Temperature of water coming back from customers or the network loop | Can be the stream that the heat pump raises before supply |
| Temperature lift | Difference between the useful source temperature and the required delivery temperature | A larger lift generally means more compressor work and higher capital requirements |
For example, the Braunschweig description starts with 25 °C cooling water, which is itself cooled to 18 °C in the recovery arrangement. A heat pump then raises district-heating return water to a 70 °C supply temperature. The 25 °C figure is therefore a source-side condition; 70 °C is the network-side result. Treating 25 °C as if it were the required delivery temperature would confuse the two sides of the system.
Published temperature examples—and what each one does and does not prove
The following cases show the range of configurations reported in the literature. They should be read as project or study conditions, not as a specification for every district-heating connection.
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| Case | Source-side temperature | Network-side temperature | Evidence and qualification |
|---|---|---|---|
| Traditional air-cooled data center | About 30 °C waste heat | Not stated as a single target | Characterization by Benjamin Ott and Peter Radgen in 2023 IEA DHC proceedings; the figure describes a typical low-grade source, not a network requirement. IEA DHC proceedings |
| Braunschweig, Germany | 25 °C cooling water, cooled to 18 °C in the system | 70 °C supply | Documented example in the 2021 IEA DHC implementation guidebook. The heat pump raises network return water to the stated supply temperature. IEA DHC guidebook |
| Technical University of Darmstadt high-performance computer | 40–45 °C hot-water cooling | Connection to a university district-heating return line at 60–75 °C | The concept was installed in 2020 and began operating in early 2021, according to the 2021 Energy Reports article. Energy Reports study |
| High-temperature heat-pump study | Data-center waste heat modeled as the low-grade input | Configurations modeled up to 120 °C | Upper modeled delivery capability in a 2024 Energy and Buildings study indexed by Oak Ridge National Laboratory; it is not a general network requirement. ORNL publication record |
How the temperature lift works
1. Capture heat without mixing the loops
A data center and a district-heating network normally remain hydraulically separate. A heat exchanger transfers energy from the data-center cooling loop to an intermediate or heat-pump circuit. Keeping the fluids separate protects the network from contamination and lets each side operate at its own pressure and water-treatment conditions.
2. Measure the real source conditions
Engineers need more than one thermometer reading. They record supply and return temperatures, flow rates, cooling-load variation, water quality, pressure and the minimum temperature available during low computing loads. The useful source temperature may change between seasons or between heavily and lightly loaded servers.
3. Raise the temperature with a heat pump
The heat pump absorbs heat at the source temperature, compresses its refrigerant, and rejects heat at a higher temperature to the district-heating side. A smaller difference between source and delivery temperatures generally reduces electricity use, as the Technical University of Denmark explains in its discussion of data-center heat recovery. DTU overview, 1 November 2022
4. Inject at the operator’s approved point
The heat pump may heat network return water, feed a supply header, or serve a separate low-temperature branch. Controls must maintain the operator’s required temperature and flow while preventing reverse flow, excessive return temperatures or unstable cycling.
5. Coordinate the two demand profiles
Data-center heat production follows IT load and cooling operation; district-heating demand follows weather and customer use. A project therefore needs controls, storage, auxiliary heat or another operating strategy for periods when the profiles do not coincide.
Why data-center cooling design changes the answer
Conventional air-cooled facilities often provide low-grade heat around 30 °C. That source can still be valuable, but a heat pump must make a larger lift to reach a high-temperature network. A hot-water-cooled high-performance-computing installation can provide 40–45 °C water instead. With a warmer source, the same network target requires less lift, which can improve heat-pump efficiency and reduce electrical demand.
These temperatures describe different cooling architectures and operating points. They are not interchangeable ratings for all data centers. A new facility may be designed for warmer liquid cooling, while an existing air-cooled building may require an additional water loop or air-to-water recovery system. The retrofit cost and achievable source temperature must be established by site measurements.
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What a feasibility study must establish
- Network target: Obtain the operator’s required supply or injection temperature, return-temperature limits, pressure, flow and seasonal set points in writing.
- Source profile: Log cooling-water temperatures and flow over representative days, seasons and IT-load conditions; do not size from a single peak reading.
- Heat quantity: Determine recoverable kilowatts after heat-exchanger losses and the data center’s own cooling and redundancy requirements.
- Temperature lift: Calculate the lift for each operating mode, including summer, shoulder-season and winter conditions.
- Heat-pump performance: Evaluate electrical input, coefficient of performance at the required lift, part-load behavior, refrigerant and high-temperature limits, maintenance and redundancy.
- Connection works: Price pipework, pumps, heat exchangers, controls, metering, civil works and any network extension between the data center and the nearest suitable connection point.
- Reliability: Define what happens during data-center maintenance, heat-pump outages, grid interruptions or a sudden loss of district-heating demand.
The DTU analysis identifies electricity prices, heat-pump investment and district-heating connection or expansion as major economic determinants. Those variables can outweigh a favorable temperature match, especially when the network is distant or the heat pump operates only a few hours each year.
Seasonal demand and winter peaks can limit the value of recovered heat
A data center may reject heat continuously, while district-heating demand is strongly seasonal. In summer, available waste heat can exceed hot-water and space-heating demand. In the coldest periods, the data center may not provide enough heat to cover the network’s peak load, even if its heat pump can reach the required temperature.
IEA DHC guidance notes that low-grade heat-pump projects need sufficient annual operating hours to recover their investment. A practical design may therefore combine several measures:
- Use the recovered heat as a baseload source and retain boilers or other generators for peaks.
- Add thermal storage so heat produced during low demand can be shifted to later hours.
- Connect to a nearby branch or return line with a lower temperature requirement rather than forcing the highest possible lift.
- Stage multiple heat-pump units so capacity follows load and one unit can remain available during maintenance.
Storage volume, backup capacity and dispatch rules should be modeled together with the temperature target. A technically achievable 70 °C or 120 °C output does not by itself demonstrate that the system will run enough hours to repay its capital cost.
What the 120 °C study figure means
The 2024 study by Pengtao Wang and coauthors evaluated high-temperature heat-pump configurations for data-center waste heat and modeled heat delivery up to 120 °C. Its abstract describes high-temperature heat pumps as a way to boost waste heat for district heating and improve system-level efficiency. That is a modeled capability under the study’s assumptions, not evidence that district-heating networks generally require 120 °C.
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The same study estimated that a one-megawatt high-temperature heat pump could reduce emissions by about 33,100–33,200 metric tons of CO2 per year, equivalent in that study to 85.4–85.6% of emissions from natural-gas boilers. Those are modeled results tied to the study’s system boundaries, operating assumptions and comparison baseline. A real project will produce a different result if its electricity mix, operating hours, source temperature, network dispatch or backup fuel differs.
Independent reader supportYour contribution helps us test, update, and keep practical guides available for everyone.Common mistakes and how to correct them
Calling 70 °C a universal requirement
Seventy degrees Celsius is the supply temperature in the Braunschweig example, not a standard that applies to every network. Ask the receiving operator for the actual connection specification.
Assuming 25–30 °C heat can be sent directly into the network
Those values describe low-grade source heat. Direct delivery is possible only where the network and end uses are designed for such temperatures. Otherwise, a heat pump or another temperature-boosting stage is required.
Sizing from the data center’s peak cooling output
Peak output may occur when the network needs less heat, and the minimum source temperature may occur at a different IT load. Use an hourly or sub-hourly profile and test coincident demand.
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A return line can offer a lower target than the supply header, reducing temperature lift. However, the operator must confirm that the injection temperature, flow and return-temperature limits are acceptable.
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Treating a modeled result as a guaranteed project outcome
Published emissions and efficiency figures depend on assumptions. Recalculate them with the site’s electricity carbon intensity, expected run hours, heat-pump size and displaced heat source.
Policy and connection rules require local verification
DTU’s November 2022 explainer discussed Danish rules and then-proposed European policy, including a possible cost-benefit-analysis requirement for data centers. Those comments are jurisdiction-specific and dated. They should not be presented as current global law. Before committing to a project, check the current requirements with the relevant network operator, energy regulator and planning authority.
A practical decision sequence
- Identify the network: Confirm the exact branch, connection point and operator responsible for approving the source.
- Get the temperature envelope: Record required supply and return temperatures for normal, shoulder-season and peak-winter operation.
- Characterize the source: Measure data-center loop temperatures, flows, load variation and availability, including redundancy events.
- Select the heat-pump lift: Compare designs for the supply header, return line and any lower-temperature branch; quantify electricity at each lift.
- Model annual operation: Include seasonal demand, storage, backup heat, outages, connection distance and expected operating hours.
- Check economics and emissions: Use current electricity and fuel prices, capital costs, grid emissions and the network’s avoided-heat assumptions.
- Secure approvals: Finalize metering, controls, water chemistry, safety, planning and contractual terms before equipment selection.
The result of that sequence is a site-specific target such as “70 °C supply at the approved interface under winter design flow,” not a generic statement that data-center waste heat must always reach one particular temperature.
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Bottom line
Data-center waste heat needs to reach whatever temperature the receiving district-heating network specifies at its connection point. Published examples span low-grade sources near 25–30 °C, warmer liquid-cooling sources at 40–45 °C, a 70 °C supply case in Braunschweig and modeled delivery up to 120 °C. A heat pump usually provides the lift. Whether the project makes sense depends just as much on electricity, capital cost, network distance, annual operating hours, seasonal demand and winter backup as on the final temperature.
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