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Yes—but no label makes a site automatically suitable. New capacity can be added on appropriately assessed brownfields, some Superfund properties, former industrial buildings, retired power-plant sites, and distributed edge facilities. Operators can also reduce pressure for new land by combining flexible workloads, storage, demand response, renewable generation, and useful heat recovery.
The decisive test is whether a proposed project can obtain deliverable electricity, cooling water, permits, cleanup approval, reliable operations, and community support without transferring unacceptable environmental burdens elsewhere. A former industrial site with a substation may still lack transmission capacity; a small edge facility may still overload local feeders; and a heat-reuse plan works only when a nearby customer can take the heat.
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Why the capacity question is becoming urgent
Data-center electricity demand is rising faster than many local planning systems were designed to handle. The U.S. Department of Energy, summarizing the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory’s 2024 report, estimated that U.S. data centers used 176 terawatt-hours (TWh) in 2023, up from 58 TWh in 2014. That represented about 4.4% of total U.S. electricity in 2023. The same estimate put 2028 data-center use at 325–580 TWh, or approximately 6.7%–12% of total U.S. electricity.
Those are U.S. figures, not a worldwide forecast. The European Commission says data centers consumed about 1.5% of global annual electricity, approximately 415 TWh, and cites an International Energy Agency projection of 945 TWh by 2030. The Commission attributes much of the expected increase to accelerated computing, including artificial-intelligence workloads. The EU has set an objective of tripling data-center capacity by 2035.
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The U.S. Geological Survey’s 2026 plain-language summary projects as much as 12% growth in data-center energy use by 2028. Its spatial analysis covered 771 AI data centers and more than 3,300 power plants in 11 western states and Alaska. USGS also reports that permitting and regulatory reviews can take 18–24 months; that is a reported timeframe, not a promise for any individual project.
Building every new campus on undeveloped land can intensify habitat loss, water competition, transmission construction, traffic, and local opposition. Reusing already developed places and operating loads more flexibly can reduce some of those pressures, but each option has a different failure mode. The right comparison is a portfolio of land, grid, water, cleanup, reliability, schedule, cost, and community effects—not a search for a single “best” site type.
What makes an alternative site genuinely viable?
A site should move beyond the marketing description “shovel-ready” only after the following questions have evidence-backed answers:
- Power deliverability: Is firm capacity available at the required voltage and date, or is only a nearby line or substation present? What transmission, transformer, protection, and interconnection upgrades are required?
- Cooling water and heat rejection: Can the project operate year-round without worsening ecological, municipal, industrial, or agricultural water shortages? Are air cooling, reclaimed water, or closed-loop systems practical?
- Environmental condition: What contamination, cap, barrier, vapor, flood, habitat, or historical-preservation obligations apply?
- Permits and schedule: Which planning, air, water, construction, utility, and cleanup approvals are needed, and in what sequence?
- Operational reliability: Can the site meet uptime requirements during grid constraints, extreme weather, fuel interruptions, or maintenance outages?
- Community outcome: Who receives jobs, tax revenue, infrastructure improvements, or heat services, and who bears noise, water, emissions, traffic, or construction impacts?
USGS identifies reliable energy access, capacity and delivery, water for year-round cooling, and regulatory timelines as joint constraints. A 2026 RAND framework similarly compares power availability, infrastructure readiness, environmental risk, and governance. Proximity to energy infrastructure is therefore only one part of siting.
At-a-glance comparison of the main alternatives
| Alternative | Why it may help | Checks and trade-offs |
|---|---|---|
| Brownfields and former industrial sites | Reuses previously developed land and may have industrial zoning, roads, utility corridors, and existing structures. | Contamination, cleanup standards, caps or barriers, power delivery, water, flood risk, and community priorities must be verified. |
| Some Superfund properties | Can return a constrained property to productive use while cleanup continues under controls. | Only site-specific plans that preserve cleanup remedies, monitoring, and long-term controls are acceptable; liability and cost can be substantial. |
| Retired or retiring power-plant sites | May offer transmission corridors, substations, industrial zoning, and an energy-community redevelopment opportunity. | Existing equipment may be obsolete or unavailable; interconnection capacity, ownership, remediation, and replacement power must be confirmed. |
| Existing buildings and coordinated building loads | Uses existing structures and can pair computing with efficiency measures or flexible building demand. | Floor loading, ceiling height, cooling, fire protection, feeder capacity, retrofit cost, and operating constraints can limit deployment. |
| Distributed edge facilities | Places selected workloads closer to users and avoids dependence on one very large campus. | More locations mean more permits, operations, network links, and feeder connections; aggregated small loads can still stress distribution systems. |
| Storage, flexible operation, and demand response | Can shift non-urgent computing, reduce peaks, and coordinate demand with grid conditions. | Requires workload flexibility, suitable tariffs, adequate storage duration, reliability safeguards, and clear responsibility for grid upgrades. |
| Waste-heat reuse and renewable co-location | Connects data-center heat or generation with nearby users and can improve resource integration. | Needs a nearby customer, compatible temperature and timing, heat pumps or networks, economic justification, and deliverable renewable power. |
Can data centers be built on brownfields?
Why brownfields are attractive
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency says a large brownfield with existing infrastructure and industrial zoning may be attractive for data-center redevelopment. Previously developed land can reduce pressure to clear undeveloped habitat and may provide roads, fiber routes, substations, water connections, and a workforce familiar with industrial operations. A former textile and manufacturing site in Forest City, North Carolina, is an EPA-described example of data-center reuse involving two former industrial properties.
That example demonstrates a redevelopment pathway, not a blanket approval for brownfields. A site must be evaluated for its actual environmental condition, not merely its former use or zoning designation.
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What due diligence must establish
- Which contaminants are present, how they move, and whether vapor intrusion or groundwater migration could affect workers or equipment.
- Whether cleanup is complete, ongoing, or subject to institutional controls and reporting.
- Whether foundations, slabs, buried tanks, drainage, flood protection, and structural systems can support the proposed equipment.
- Whether the utility can deliver the requested load on the project schedule rather than simply confirming that a line or substation is nearby.
- Whether cooling-water withdrawals, discharge, or backup-generation emissions create new environmental conflicts.
- Whether residents support the redevelopment and understand construction, noise, traffic, and long-term operating conditions.
EPA’s brownfield redevelopment mapper can help screen characteristics and database coverage. It is an initial-screening aid, not a substitute for a Phase I and Phase II environmental investigation, engineering design, cleanup approvals, utility studies, or permits.
Can a Superfund property host a data center?
In some cases, yes. EPA explains that redevelopment can be possible while cleanup is still underway, provided the proposed use aligns with cleanup standards and does not interfere with the remedy. A data center may be designed around a protective cap, slurry wall, barrier, monitoring system, or other engineering control, but those controls have to remain accessible, intact, and funded for long-term maintenance.
Conditions that make reuse more plausible
- The remedy and future land use are compatible, with a documented way to protect workers and prevent exposure.
- Construction can avoid disturbing contaminated soil, groundwater controls, wells, caps, and buried infrastructure.
- Foundations, utility trenches, stormwater systems, and emergency generators can be built without compromising the remedy.
- Ownership, liability allocation, monitoring duties, and institutional controls are clear for the life of the facility.
- The project has a plan for inspections, repairs, and access after the data center begins operating.
“Superfund” is therefore not a shortcut around environmental review. Some properties will be impractical or uneconomic because contamination, controls, financing, or construction constraints are incompatible with a high-reliability facility.
Could retired power plants be reused?
The Department of Energy identifies reuse of retired coal-facility infrastructure as one possible capacity strategy. A former plant may have industrial zoning, a transmission corridor, a substation, water infrastructure, rail or road access, and a community seeking replacement economic activity. Those attributes can shorten parts of development compared with a greenfield site.
Why an existing plant connection is not a capacity guarantee
Generation equipment may have been retired because it is obsolete, uneconomic, or environmentally restricted. The switchyard, transformers, breakers, and transmission rights may be owned by different parties or sized for a prior operating pattern. A data center’s continuous load can require new protection studies, transformers, transmission reinforcement, and an interconnection agreement even when the property has a visible substation.
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Can existing buildings carry new computing capacity?
Converting an existing warehouse, factory, office, or laboratory can reduce land disturbance and construction time when the structure is suitable. A building-load coordination approach can also pair computing with energy efficiency, HVAC controls, batteries, or flexible non-computing loads elsewhere on the property.
Building checks that are easy to underestimate
- Structure: Racks, batteries, generators, chillers, and cable trays can exceed ordinary office or warehouse floor loads.
- Cooling: High-density accelerators need a heat-removal design, sometimes including liquid cooling, that the building envelope and mechanical rooms can support.
- Electrical service: A large service entrance, spare switchgear, or rooftop equipment does not prove that the feeder or upstream network has capacity.
- Fire and safety: Battery rooms, fuel storage, generators, and altered occupancy can trigger new fire-protection and hazardous-material requirements.
- Operations: Loading docks, security zones, maintenance access, noise limits, and neighboring tenants may constrain 24-hour operation.
A laboratory report proposing an integration framework can inform planning, but it does not certify universal feasibility for every existing building. The building, utility, and workload must be assessed together.
When do distributed or edge facilities make sense?
Edge facilities place some computing closer to users, devices, or industrial processes. They can serve applications where latency, data sovereignty, or local resilience matters and can reduce reliance on one very large campus. The National Laboratory of the Rockies reported a 2025 abstract predicting that 90% of AI workloads by 2030 would require multiple low-latency edge facilities under 20 megawatts. That is the paper’s prediction, not a settled forecast.
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Replacing one campus with many smaller sites does not eliminate infrastructure demand. Each location needs a service connection, cooling, backup power, security, network connectivity, maintenance, and permits. Several facilities in one region can collectively overload distribution feeders even if no individual site is large. Operating costs and failure-management complexity also rise as the number of locations increases.
Edge deployment is most defensible when latency requirements are real, workloads can be partitioned, candidate buildings have suitable electrical and cooling characteristics, and the distribution utility confirms capacity. It is not automatically a lower-impact option.
How storage and flexible workloads reduce grid pressure
Data centers generally protect high availability, but not every computation has the same deadline. Training jobs, batch analytics, backups, and some inference tasks may be shifted in time or location. DOE identifies onsite generation and storage, flexible operation, and rate structures as strategies; the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe discusses conditional connections, cost-reflective tariffs, flexibility, demand response, storage, heat recovery, and renewable co-location.
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Design questions before claiming flexibility
- Which workloads can pause, slow, migrate, or run at another facility without violating service-level commitments?
- How many minutes or hours of storage are required, and what happens during a longer outage or a low-renewable period?
- Will the utility permit interruptible or conditional service, and what compensation or penalties apply?
- Does charging storage create a new peak, and can batteries provide grid services without reducing backup readiness?
- Who funds feeder, transformer, or transmission upgrades needed for the connection?
Flexibility can reduce peak or inflexible demand; it does not make an undersized connection safe, remove the need for backup systems, or erase local air, water, and land impacts.
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Waste heat
Recovering data-center heat is most plausible where a nearby user needs a continuous, predictable supply and where the temperature is useful after heat-pump upgrading. Potential users include district-energy networks, hospitals, campuses, greenhouses, or industrial processes, but feasibility depends on distance, seasonal demand, pipe routes, ownership, control systems, and the cost of heat exchangers and heat pumps.
Virginia’s Department of Energy published a 2026 evaluation covering beneficial uses, information exchange among facilities, end users and localities, implementation challenges, and estimated infrastructure costs. The existence of a technical possibility does not establish that a particular project has an economic customer. A heat plan should identify the user, temperature and timing match, network route, backup arrangement, and payment model before it is counted as a benefit.
Renewable co-location
Placing solar, wind, or other renewable generation near a data center can reduce line losses or provide a visible clean-energy supply, but physical proximity does not guarantee deliverability. The project still needs an interconnection, firming resources, storage or market purchases, and a plan for periods when renewable output is low. Renewable co-location can complement grid planning; it cannot by itself solve transmission, water, permitting, or reliability constraints.
A practical screening process for non-sensitive-site capacity
- Define the workload: Record peak and average megawatts, ramp rate, latency, uptime tier, cooling technology, water needs, and which jobs can move or pause.
- Build a broad candidate list: Include brownfields, former industrial buildings, retired energy sites, and distributed locations. Treat every candidate as provisional.
- Check deliverable power with the utility: Request an interconnection study, available service date, required upgrades, cost allocation, and curtailment or conditional-service terms.
- Map water and cooling constraints: Compare withdrawals and discharges with ecological, municipal, industrial, and agricultural demand. Test air-cooled, reclaimed-water, and closed-loop designs where appropriate.
- Complete environmental and structural due diligence: Investigate contamination, caps, vapor, flood exposure, habitat, foundations, buried utilities, hazardous materials, and demolition needs.
- Test permits and schedule: Sequence zoning, construction, utility, air, water, stormwater, cleanup, and generator approvals. Use the USGS 18–24-month review figure only as a broad reported reference, not a commitment.
- Design the operating system: Specify backup generation, storage duration, workload flexibility, demand-response rules, maintenance access, and failure procedures.
- Engage the community early: Publish expected jobs, tax effects, noise, water use, traffic, emissions, construction hours, and enforceable mitigation or benefit commitments.
- Score alternatives transparently: Compare land disturbance, habitat, firm power, transmission, water, cost, schedule, cleanup liability, reliability, and local benefits using the same assumptions.
Common failure modes and how to avoid them
“There is a substation, so power is available.”
Correct the claim with a utility interconnection study that identifies firm capacity, queue position, upgrades, and energization date. A map of nearby infrastructure is not a delivery commitment.
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“Brownfield means environmentally safe.”
Require site investigation, remedy review, construction controls, and long-term monitoring. Previously developed land can still contain serious contamination or flood and vapor risks.
“Edge means low impact.”
Count every facility’s feeder, cooling, backup generation, network, maintenance, and permitting needs, then assess their combined effect on the distribution system.
“Clean electricity removes the environmental problem.”
Clean generation can reduce operational emissions, but transmission, land, water, storage, backup power, construction, and local impacts remain. Jennifer M. Granholm said in a Department of Energy release on 20 December 2024, “We can meet this growth with clean energy.” That is the Department’s position, not proof that clean supply, transmission, or permits already exist at a particular site.
“Heat reuse is automatically economical.”
Identify a real nearby customer and price the pipe, heat pump, controls, backup heat, maintenance, and seasonal mismatch. Without those facts, heat recovery is a possibility rather than a verified project benefit.
What current policy signals indicate
In the United States, EPA’s brownfield and Superfund guidance supports reuse when cleanup standards, engineering controls, conservation, and community protection are maintained. DOE’s energy strategy emphasizes retired-site reuse, onsite generation and storage, and rate design. USGS’s 2026 work highlights the need to evaluate power delivery and water together and notes that its spatial analysis did not perform detailed environmental or regulatory reviews or recommend specific future sites.
In Europe, the European Commission page accessed on 13 October 2026 said a common data-center rating scheme had been proposed on 21 September 2026, minimum performance standards were under preparation, and a legislative proposal was planned for the second quarter of 2027. Those were policy-development milestones at that date, not enacted standards.
UNECE’s discussion of conditional connections, cost-reflective tariffs, demand response, storage, heat recovery, and renewable co-location points toward a system-planning approach: large loads should coordinate with grids rather than assume unlimited firm service. Virginia’s 2026 heat-reuse evaluation similarly treats end-user coordination and infrastructure cost as central questions.
How to choose a responsible portfolio
No single alternative can absorb all projected demand. A practical portfolio might combine redevelopment of a few thoroughly assessed industrial sites, selected retired-energy properties with verified interconnection capacity, smaller edge facilities for genuinely latency-sensitive workloads, and flexible scheduling for jobs that do not require constant operation. Storage, renewable procurement, and heat reuse can support that portfolio where local engineering and economics work.
The strongest proposals make trade-offs explicit. They distinguish a potential site from a permitted, powered, water-secure project; publish who pays for grid upgrades; preserve cleanup remedies; quantify water and backup-fuel use; and give communities enforceable benefits rather than broad promises. Sensitive undeveloped land should not be the default simply because it is easier to draw on a map, but a previously used site should not be approved merely because its history sounds convenient.
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