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This guide covers PostgreSQL and MySQL, cron and systemd scheduling, Restic and Borg repositories, least-privilege credentials, lock files, retention, monitoring, and recovery drills. Adapt the commands to your database name, operating-system user, storage backend, and recovery objectives.
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Before writing a script, decide how much data you can lose and how quickly the service must return. The recovery point objective (RPO) is the maximum acceptable data loss. A nightly dump can lose almost a day of changes; hourly dumps reduce that window but consume more storage and database I/O. The recovery time objective (RTO) is the time allowed to restore service. A logical dump is usually portable and easy to inspect, but restoring a very large database can take substantially longer than restoring a prepared base backup.
Write down the answers for each database:
- Which databases, schemas, roles, routines, and extensions must be included?
- What is the maximum tolerable loss of committed transactions?
- How long may the application be offline during recovery?
- Where will the off-site copy live if the VPS, account, disk, or region is unavailable?
- Who receives alerts and who holds the encryption or repository key?
Keep logs outside the directory containing local backup files. A failed disk or an accidental deletion must not remove both the evidence and the only copy.
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Choose a backup method
PostgreSQL’s documentation describes three distinct approaches. SQL dumps are portable and straightforward to restore. Filesystem-level backups can be faster for some workloads, but they depend on compatible storage and correct shutdown or consistency procedures. Continuous archiving combines a base backup with WAL archiving and supports point-in-time recovery (PITR).
| Method | Recovery characteristics | Operational considerations |
|---|---|---|
Logical dump (pg_dump or mysqldump) |
Portable, inspectable, and simple to restore; recovery is to the time of the dump | Can be slow to restore for very large databases; does not by itself provide continuous PITR |
| Filesystem or base backup | Can shorten restore time for large datasets | Requires database-specific consistency handling and compatible storage procedures |
| Continuous archiving with PITR | Allows recovery to a precise time when a base backup and WAL archiving are available | Needs more storage, monitoring, and operational expertise |
For a small or medium application, begin with a tested logical dump sent off-site. Move to a base-backup-plus-WAL design when the database is too large for the required RTO or when losing more than a few minutes of transactions is unacceptable. A snapshot alone is not a substitute for a consistent database backup unless the database engine and storage procedure explicitly support it.
Prepare the VPS and backup identity
Create a protected working layout
Use a root-owned script in /usr/local/sbin/db-backup, or a dedicated backup service account with only the permissions it needs. Keep temporary archives in a directory with restrictive permissions and place logs in a separate location such as /var/log/db-backup. Do not write archives into a web server’s document root.
sudo install -o root -g root -m 700 /dev/null /usr/local/sbin/db-backup
sudo install -d -o root -g root -m 700 /var/lib/db-backup
sudo install -d -o root -g root -m 700 /var/log/db-backupUse a separate database identity for backups. Grant it the minimum read, metadata, and lock permissions required by the dump tool; do not reuse the application’s unrestricted owner account. Store credentials in a protected client file or secret manager rather than on a command line, where they can appear in process listings or shell history.
Protect transport and keys
Use encrypted transport to the remote repository and keep the repository key separately protected. If the VPS is compromised, an attacker should not automatically obtain both the encrypted archives and the key needed to decrypt them. Keep at least one copy outside the VPS account or host. Test access using the same off-site destination that production recovery would use, not merely a local cache.
Build a PostgreSQL backup
Choose the dump scope
pg_dump exports one database. It includes that database’s schema and data, but not cluster-wide roles or tablespaces. Use pg_dumpall --globals-only (or a full pg_dumpall where appropriate) when roles, grants, and other global objects are part of recovery. For a larger PostgreSQL installation that needs point-in-time recovery, configure a base backup and WAL archiving; do not rely only on periodic dumps.
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Store credentials without exposing them
A PostgreSQL client password file should be readable only by its owner. For a root-run script, create a root-owned file such as /root/.pgpass with mode 600, or point PGPASSFILE to an equivalently protected path. A secret manager is preferable when your infrastructure already provides one.
Example dump script
The following pattern creates a timestamped compressed dump, refuses to run concurrently, and exits nonzero when any stage fails. Replace the connection values and repository command with your environment.
#!/bin/sh
set -eu
umask 077
LOCK=/run/lock/postgres-backup.lock
DEST=/var/lib/db-backup/postgres
LOG=/var/log/db-backup/postgres.log
STAMP=$(date -u +%Y%m%dT%H%M%SZ)
DB=appdb
OUT="$DEST/${DB}-${STAMP}.sql.gz"
mkdir -p "$DEST"
exec 9>"$LOCK"
flock -n 9 || { echo "backup already running" >&2; exit 1; }
trap 'status=$?; echo "$(date -u) exit=$status" >> "$LOG"; exit $status' EXIT
echo "$(date -u) starting $DB" >> "$LOG"
pg_dump --format=plain --no-owner --no-privileges "$DB" | gzip -9 > "$OUT"
test -s "$OUT"
# Upload with your repository client, then verify the uploaded snapshot.
# restic backup "$OUT" --tag postgres
find "$DEST" -type f -name '*.sql.gz' -mtime +14 -delete
echo "$(date -u) completed $OUT" >> "$LOG"Run a separate globals export if roles and grants are needed, and upload it with the database dump. Keep the database and globals files associated with the same timestamp so a restore operator knows which set belongs together.
Build a MySQL backup
For MySQL, a logical workflow uses mysqldump. A common transactional setup uses --single-transaction for InnoDB tables, while also exporting routines and events when the application depends on them. Triggers are normally included, but state the option explicitly in scripts so a future change is visible. Tables using nontransactional engines need additional consistency planning; --single-transaction does not make those tables consistent.
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#!/bin/sh
set -eu
umask 077
LOCK=/run/lock/mysql-backup.lock
DEST=/var/lib/db-backup/mysql
LOG=/var/log/db-backup/mysql.log
STAMP=$(date -u +%Y%m%dT%H%M%SZ)
DB=appdb
OUT="$DEST/${DB}-${STAMP}.sql.gz"
mkdir -p "$DEST"
exec 9>"$LOCK"
flock -n 9 || { echo "backup already running" >&2; exit 1; }
trap 'status=$?; echo "$(date -u) exit=$status" >> "$LOG"; exit $status' EXIT
echo "$(date -u) starting $DB" >> "$LOG"
mysqldump --single-transaction --routines --events --triggers --hex-blob "$DB" | gzip -9 > "$OUT"
test -s "$OUT"
# Upload and verify with your repository client here.
# restic backup "$OUT" --tag mysql
find "$DEST" -type f -name '*.sql.gz' -mtime +14 -delete
echo "$(date -u) completed $OUT" >> "$LOG"For MySQL replication or very large datasets, evaluate a physical or engine-specific backup method against your RTO. A logical dump remains useful as a portable fallback even when a faster physical copy is your primary recovery path.
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Send archives to off-site storage
Restic repositories
Restic is an encrypted repository client that supports S3 and S3-compatible storage, SFTP, Azure Blob, Google Cloud Storage, and other backends. It does not provide its own scheduler, so invoke it from cron or a systemd timer. Initialize the repository once, store its password outside the VPS or in a protected secret service, and restrict the storage credentials to the target bucket or path.
After creating a dump, run a repository backup tagged with the database and environment, then check that the snapshot is visible. A successful upload command should be treated as a prerequisite for verification, not as proof that a restore will work.
restic -r "$RESTIC_REPOSITORY" backup /var/lib/db-backup/postgres
--tag postgres --tag production
restic -r "$RESTIC_REPOSITORY" snapshots --tag postgres
restic -r "$RESTIC_REPOSITORY" checkRun repository maintenance and pruning according to your retention policy. Keep enough snapshots to cover daily operations, weekly incidents, and monthly or long-term recovery requirements; do not prune the only copy before a newer copy has been verified.
Borg repositories
Borg provides deduplication, compression, authenticated encryption, and repositories reachable over SSH. A typical policy keeps several daily archives, several weekly archives, and several monthly archives. Express that policy with borg prune, then run repository checks on a schedule that does not overlap with backups.
borg create --stats --compression zstd
ssh://backup-user@backup-host/./repo::'{hostname}-{now}'
/var/lib/db-backup/postgres /var/lib/db-backup/mysql
borg prune --list --keep-daily=7 --keep-weekly=4 --keep-monthly=12
ssh://backup-user@backup-host/./repoUse a dedicated SSH key restricted to the repository and, where supported, a forced command or restricted account. Keep the Borg passphrase separately protected from the VPS and document the recovery process for authorized operators.
Schedule without overlapping runs
Cron
Cron is adequate for a straightforward schedule. Edit root’s crontab with sudo crontab -e. This example runs at 02:15 UTC every day and writes standard output and errors to the external log:
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15 2 * * * /usr/local/sbin/db-backup >>/var/log/db-backup/cron.log 2>&1Use the server’s actual timezone deliberately; UTC avoids surprises during daylight-saving changes. The script’s flock prevents a slow dump from overlapping the next invocation. If your system lacks flock, use an equivalent atomic lock mechanism and remove stale locks safely.
systemd timer
Systemd provides explicit dependencies, journal logging, and missed-run behavior. Create /etc/systemd/system/db-backup.service:
[Unit]
Description=Database backup
[Service]
Type=oneshot
ExecStart=/usr/local/sbin/db-backupThen create /etc/systemd/system/db-backup.timer:
[Unit]
Description=Run database backup daily
[Timer]
OnCalendar=*-*-* 02:15:00 UTC
Persistent=true
[Install]
WantedBy=timers.targetEnable and inspect it:
sudo systemctl daemon-reload
sudo systemctl enable --now db-backup.timer
systemctl list-timers db-backup.timer
sudo systemctl start db-backup.service
sudo journalctl -u db-backup.serviceSchedule upload verification and repository maintenance separately if they can run for a long time. Keep the lock around the complete dump-and-upload transaction when concurrent access could exhaust disk space or bandwidth.
Retention, verification, and alerting
Use layered retention
Retain multiple recovery points rather than only the newest file. A practical policy may include recent daily copies, older weekly copies, and monthly copies for historical incidents. The exact counts should follow your RPO, legal requirements, and storage budget. Apply retention in the remote repository, not only with a local find -delete; otherwise a lost VPS can also erase your history.
Verify each stage
- Confirm the dump command exits successfully.
- Confirm the archive exists, is nonempty, and has restrictive permissions.
- Confirm the upload returns success and the remote snapshot appears.
- Run repository integrity checks on a schedule.
- Check free space before creating a dump and alert when thresholds are crossed.
- Alert on failed dumps, failed uploads, verification errors, and missed timer or cron runs.
Do not treat a snapshot listing, object count, or successful exit code as a restore test. Those checks detect many transport failures, but only an actual import into a disposable database proves that the contents are usable.
Perform a restore drill
At a frequency appropriate to your RPO and change rate, restore a copy to an isolated host or disposable database. Use the same off-site repository and credentials path that production recovery would use, while keeping the restored system disconnected from production users and external side effects.
- Choose a dated snapshot and record its timestamp.
- Download or mount it on the isolated recovery environment.
- For PostgreSQL, create an empty database, restore globals first when required, then load the dump with
psqlorpg_restoreaccording to the dump format. - For MySQL, create an empty database and import the decompressed SQL with the appropriate client.
- Check that expected schemas, tables, indexes, routines, triggers, events, and representative rows exist.
- Test application credentials and a read-only application startup against the restored database.
- Measure dump retrieval and import time against your RTO.
- Destroy the disposable environment and record defects, missing privileges, or undocumented steps.
Restore drills often reveal issues that backup logs cannot: missing roles, absent extensions, expired keys, incompatible client versions, incomplete object exports, or an RTO that was never realistic. Correct the script and run the drill again after material changes to the schema, VPS, database version, or storage backend.
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Troubleshoot common failures
The dump fails with a permission error
Confirm that the backup identity can connect to the intended database and read every required schema. PostgreSQL global objects require a separate globals export. MySQL routines and events require the corresponding metadata privileges. Test the command as the same operating-system user used by cron or systemd; an interactive shell may be using a different password file or environment.
The upload succeeds but the repository cannot be opened
Check the repository URL, endpoint, region, bucket or path, and credentials available to the scheduler. Ensure the encryption password is present through a protected secret mechanism. Run a repository listing and integrity check from the recovery host, not only from the VPS that created the backup.
Backups overlap or fill the disk
Keep the lock around the operation, reduce compression pressure, and monitor dump duration. Check available space before starting and reserve room for at least one additional archive. Upload promptly and prune only after the remote copy and a verification step succeed.
The restore is incomplete
Compare the dump scope with the production dependency list. PostgreSQL roles, grants, tablespaces, extensions, and WAL are separate concerns from a single database dump. MySQL routines, events, triggers, and nontransactional tables need explicit review. Update the script, document the required order, and repeat the isolated restore.
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A practical decision framework
- Choose logical dumps when portability, inspectability, and simple operations matter most.
- Add filesystem or base backups when the dataset makes logical restore time incompatible with your RTO.
- Use continuous archiving and PITR when recovery to a precise time or a very small RPO is essential and you can operate the additional monitoring and storage.
- Use Restic when you want an encrypted client with many remote backends and are comfortable scheduling it externally.
- Use Borg when deduplication, compression, authenticated encryption, and an SSH-accessible repository fit your infrastructure.
Whichever method you choose, the non-negotiable controls are an off-site copy, protected credentials and keys, concurrency protection, retention, failure alerts, and a restore drill that demonstrates the database and application can actually come back.
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