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Run the agent in a separate, disposable environment—a virtual machine, microVM, rootless container, or equivalent OS sandbox—with only the project directory mounted. Deny network egress by default, keep credentials and orchestration outside the sandbox, and allow only the files, commands, resources, and destinations the task genuinely needs. Verify mounts, routes, processes, sockets, and tool integrations before allowing untrusted code to run.
Why a prompt is not a security boundary
An instruction such as “do not read my files” only guides an agent; it does not remove the operating-system permissions available to the programs it launches. OpenAI’s security guidance puts the issue plainly: “Agent-generated code can access the files, credentials, and network available to its environment.” If the agent can see a path, open a socket, use a credential, or start a host-connected tool, it may be able to use it regardless of what the prompt says.
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Sandboxing therefore means changing the environment, not merely adding a policy sentence. The boundary must be enforced by filesystem mounts and permissions, a separate process or kernel boundary, network policy, credential handling, and controls on the tools the agent can invoke.
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- Network exposure: the default should be no route to the internet; if access is required, destinations should be explicitly allowlisted and logged.
- Credential exposure: long-lived secrets should remain outside the compute environment and be replaced with narrowly scoped, short-lived credentials when possible.
- Process exposure: the agent should not be able to reach a host daemon, container socket, local control plane, or privileged callback that can act on its behalf.
Isolation strength should match the worst thing the agent might execute. A trusted coding assistant working on disposable code has a different requirement from an agent that downloads arbitrary repositories, executes generated binaries, or processes untrusted customer files.
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Choose the isolation layer for your threat model
There is no universally safest runtime. A shared-kernel container can be efficient and precise, while a VM or microVM supplies a stronger boundary at the cost of startup time, image maintenance, and additional observability work.
| Approach | Host separation | Filesystem controls | Network controls | Operational profile | Appropriate use |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rootless container | Separate process and mount namespaces, shared host kernel | Bind-mount only a workspace; read-only root and volumes are available | Offline network namespace or host firewall/egress policy | Fast startup and familiar tooling; a kernel escape or privileged integration remains a concern | Routine development and lower-impact automation when the image and integrations are tightly controlled |
| Userspace-kernel sandbox | Additional mediation between guest processes and the host kernel | Container-style mounts plus a narrower system-call surface | Namespace and firewall policy still required | More isolation than a conventional container, with compatibility and performance trade-offs | Untrusted code where a shared kernel is acceptable but extra defense in depth is needed |
| MicroVM | Dedicated virtual-machine kernel and hardware-virtualization boundary | Guest filesystem can be built per run and discarded or restored from a snapshot | Virtual NIC can be disabled or attached only to an egress control point | Higher setup and image-management cost; strong reset and tenant separation | Agents that execute hostile or high-impact code |
| Full VM | Strongest conventional separation from the host among these choices | Dedicated guest disk; share only explicitly configured folders or devices | Virtual network and guest firewall can be fully isolated | Most resource-intensive, but easiest to reason about for strict boundaries | High-value data, multiple users, or workloads with a high escape impact |
OWASP lists restricted namespaces or containers, userspace kernels, microVMs, AppArmor or SELinux, seccomp, mount namespaces, and read-only volumes as controls that can be combined. OpenAI describes cloud execution using an isolated container with network access disabled by default and Linux restrictions such as seccomp and Landlock. Treat those examples as design patterns rather than a guarantee that any one product configuration is safe.
Start with a capability contract
Before creating an image or VM, write down what the task must be able to do. This prevents a vague request such as “let the agent code” from turning into broad access.
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Specify the workspace
- Record the exact source and output directories. Use a fresh directory for each run or user.
- Classify each path as read-only input, writable working data, or output to be exported after review.
- Decide whether hidden files, Git metadata, build caches, and generated artifacts are actually required.
Specify commands and capabilities
- List interpreters, compilers, package managers, test runners, and system utilities the agent needs.
- Decide whether it may create child processes, open listening sockets, access a GPU, or use hardware devices.
- Set maximum CPU, memory, process count, disk use, and wall-clock time from the workload’s normal profile. The cited security guidance does not prescribe universal numbers; measure the task in staging and leave headroom for legitimate builds.
Specify network destinations
- Choose offline operation whenever dependencies can be preloaded.
- If online access is required, name package registries, source hosts, APIs, and internal services individually.
- Define whether DNS is needed, whether uploads are permitted, and which HTTP methods or ports are allowed.
Specify outputs and approvals
Keep authentication, approvals, logging, and recovery in a harness outside the compute environment. The compute instance should receive a task and return artifacts; it should not own the authority to approve its own destructive actions. Require a human or a separate policy service to approve irreversible operations such as publishing, deleting data, changing infrastructure, or sending messages.
Build a disposable filesystem view
Mount only what the agent needs. A direct workspace mount makes changes visible on the host, so use a dedicated directory and treat every write as potentially hostile. Never mount the host home directory, an SSH agent socket, cloud credential directories, a Docker or other container-engine socket, CI secrets, or editor configuration unless the risk is explicitly accepted and compensated for.
Container pattern for a development task
The following pattern illustrates the controls to combine. Run it with a rootless engine or an equivalent unprivileged runtime, and replace the image and command with values appropriate to your environment.
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mkdir -p /srv/agent-runs/run-001/work
docker run --rm --pull=never
--network=none
--read-only
--cap-drop=ALL
--security-opt=no-new-privileges
--pids-limit=256
--cpus=2
--memory=4g
--tmpfs /tmp:rw,noexec,nosuid,size=1g
--mount type=bind,src=/srv/agent-runs/run-001/work,dst=/workspace,rw
--workdir=/workspace
--user=1000:1000
agent-image:tag agent-commandThis command makes the root filesystem read-only, drops Linux capabilities, blocks privilege escalation, limits processes and resources, and exposes only one writable directory. The temporary filesystem gives tools a place for transient files without making the image or host writable. Adjust the user ID so files created in the workspace are owned by the intended host account; do not solve ownership problems by running the agent as root.
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A read-only root does not make the setup safe by itself. A process can still abuse a writable mount, exploit a vulnerable kernel interface, or call a host-connected integration. Pair the container with a seccomp profile, Landlock or equivalent filesystem policy, and AppArmor or SELinux where available. Keep the engine socket outside the container. Anyone who can use a host container socket may effectively obtain host-level control.
VM or microVM pattern
- Create a minimal guest image containing only the agent runtime and required dependencies.
- Disable shared clipboard, USB, host home-directory sharing, and unnecessary virtual devices.
- Attach a new guest disk or snapshot for each run. Mount the project through a narrowly scoped virtio filesystem share only when a share is necessary; otherwise copy an input archive into the guest and export an output archive afterward.
- Start with no virtual network interface. If the task needs online access, attach the interface to a network segment whose firewall permits only the approved egress proxy or destinations.
- Destroy or revert the guest after collecting outputs. Do not reuse a guest that executed untrusted code for a different user or project.
MicroVMs and full VMs add a separate guest kernel, but they still need guest-level permissions, network rules, and credential hygiene. A VM with a shared host folder and a broad outbound route is not an offline sandbox.
Enforce network denial and controlled egress
Offline by default
For a task that does not need downloads or external APIs, use a network namespace with no interface or an equivalent firewall rule that denies all egress. This also prevents DNS lookups, which is useful because DNS can otherwise reveal data or provide a covert channel. Prebuild dependencies in a trusted environment, or provide a read-only package cache inside the sandbox.
Allowlist through a controlled path
When network access is necessary, put the sandbox behind a firewall or authenticated egress proxy. Permit only the hostnames, IP ranges, ports, and protocols listed in the capability contract. Log connection attempts, DNS decisions, request identities, response sizes, and denied destinations. Anthropic describes sandbox network access as a consequence of VPC and firewall rules and documents an egress allowlist in its reference harness; the principle applies to any runtime.
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Check common escape routes
- Block cloud instance metadata addresses and other link-local control endpoints.
- Prevent access to host-network services, local daemon ports, and loopback services that are not part of the task.
- Decide whether IPv6 is enabled; an IPv4-only firewall does not automatically protect an IPv6 route.
- Restrict uploads as well as downloads. A read-only filesystem does not stop an agent from exfiltrating data it can read.
Keep credentials outside the sandbox
Do not bake API keys, SSH private keys, cloud tokens, registry passwords, or personal access tokens into an image, repository, ordinary environment file, or persistent workspace. Environment variables are convenient but are visible to processes that can inspect the environment and may be captured in crash reports or logs.
Use a secrets manager or a broker in the harness. Issue a short-lived credential for one operation, scoped to one repository or API action, and revoke it when the run ends. Prefer a signing or upload service that accepts a specific artifact over handing the agent a general-purpose cloud key. Keep the broker outside the sandbox and make the agent request an operation through an authenticated, policy-checked interface.
For source control, a deploy key restricted to one repository is safer than a user’s complete SSH identity. For cloud APIs, restrict actions and resources, add an expiration, and block instance metadata access from the guest. Anthropic recommends a secrets manager and describes blocking metadata access; OpenAI recommends separated credentials and vault-managed secrets.
Restrict syscalls, mounts, and resources
Filesystem and network rules do not cover every kernel interaction. Apply a seccomp or equivalent system-call profile that removes capabilities the workload does not need. Use mount namespaces and Landlock-style rules to constrain path access even if a process discovers an unexpected mount. Apply AppArmor or SELinux policies where your operating system supports them.
Set resource limits to contain denial-of-service behavior:
- CPU: cap cores or scheduler time so a runaway build cannot starve the host.
- Memory: set a hard limit and define whether the runtime kills the process or swaps; avoid exposing host swap data.
- Processes: use a process limit to contain fork bombs.
- Storage: cap writable disk space and inode count, and export only approved output files.
- Time: stop jobs that exceed a tested execution window.
- Devices: expose no host devices, GPUs, cameras, microphones, or USB hardware unless the task explicitly requires them.
These controls are defense in depth, not proof of safety. Test legitimate workloads in staging so that a restrictive profile fails closed with a clear error rather than silently prompting operators to grant broad privileges.
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Audit integrations that can bypass the sandbox
An agent often reaches beyond its command runner through plugins, browser automation, package hooks, editor extensions, or Model Context Protocol servers. Review each integration’s executable, user identity, mounts, network access, and callback path.
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- Run integrations inside the sandbox whenever possible.
- If a host service is unavoidable, expose a narrow API with explicit verbs, schema validation, authentication, rate limits, and audit logs—not a general shell.
- Use separate browser profiles with no personal cookies, saved passwords, extensions, or local-file permissions.
- Disable package-manager lifecycle scripts unless the task requires them, and review downloaded build tools before execution.
- Record every tool call, approval decision, credential issuance, network decision, and exported file.
Verify the boundary before trusting the agent
Perform these checks from inside the sandbox and from the host before every new image, runtime, policy, or integration is promoted.
- Enumerate mounts: inspect
findmnt -R /andcat /proc/1/mountinfo. Confirm that only the intended workspace and required read-only data are present. - Test sensitive paths: verify that representative paths such as
/root/.ssh, cloud credential directories, host home paths, and the engine socket are absent or unreadable. A denial is expected; an accessible file is a release-blocking finding. - Inspect identity and privileges: run
id, inspect capabilities, and confirm the process is not root and cannot gain privilege through set-user-ID binaries or a writable system path. - Inspect routes and DNS: run
ip routeand a DNS lookup. In offline mode, there should be no usable default route and no resolver path. - Test approved and denied destinations: make a request to each required endpoint and to a known unapproved endpoint. The first should work only under the documented policy; the second should fail and appear in logs.
- Check metadata and host services: confirm that link-local metadata addresses, host loopback services, and control-plane ports are unreachable.
- Test write containment: create and delete files in the workspace, then attempt writes to the root filesystem and representative host paths. Writes outside the workspace must fail.
- Inspect child processes: start a normal task and review its process tree. Unexpected host helpers, privileged daemons, or long-lived callbacks require investigation.
- Run an integration test: exercise every plugin, MCP server, browser, and callback exactly as the agent will use it. A clean container test is insufficient if the real workflow invokes a host process.
Repeat the checks after changing the base image, runtime version, mount list, firewall, proxy, credentials, or tool configuration. Keep the results with the run record so a later incident can be reconstructed.
Operate the sandbox as a disposable security boundary
Reset between runs
Use a new workspace, container, VM, or snapshot for each user or trust domain. Remove temporary files and credentials after exporting approved outputs. Reusing a writable workspace allows one task to plant code, configuration, or credentials for the next task.
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Mount source and reference data read-only when possible. Write results to a separate directory that the harness validates for expected names, sizes, and file types before copying them to a host system. Do not automatically execute returned binaries or scripts.
Monitor behavior, not just failures
Collect process, filesystem, network, and policy-denial events. Alert on unexpected outbound destinations, attempts to read sensitive paths, privilege changes, creation of set-user-ID files, access to device nodes, and repeated policy violations. Logs should be generated outside the sandbox so an agent cannot erase its own evidence.
Plan recovery
Keep immutable base images and known-good VM snapshots. If an agent behaves unexpectedly, terminate the compute instance, revoke any issued credential, block its network identity, preserve logs, and rebuild rather than attempting to clean the environment in place.
Troubleshoot common failures without widening access blindly
| Symptom | Likely cause | Safer fix |
|---|---|---|
| Package installation fails | The sandbox is offline or the registry is not allowlisted | Preload dependencies or allow one approved registry through the egress proxy; do not open unrestricted internet access |
| Build cannot write temporary files | Read-only root has no writable temporary filesystem | Provide a size-limited, non-executable temporary mount such as /tmp |
| Files are owned by the wrong host user | The container UID does not match the workspace owner | Run as a non-root UID mapped to the intended account or export through a controlled copy step |
| Agent sees unexpected project files | A parent directory, Git worktree, cache, or editor mount was exposed | Create a clean run directory and mount only the required subtree; inspect mounts again |
| A plugin still reaches host data | The plugin starts outside the sandbox or uses a host socket | Move it inside the boundary or replace it with a narrow, audited broker API |
| Network denial is bypassed | An alternate interface, IPv6 route, proxy bypass, or host callback exists | Inspect all routes and interfaces, enforce policy at the firewall, and test every integration path |
| Legitimate work is killed | CPU, memory, process, disk, or time limits are too low | Measure the workload in staging and increase only the specific limit that is justified |
A practical decision guide
- Use an offline rootless container when the agent edits disposable code, dependencies can be preloaded, and the consequence of a kernel escape is limited.
- Add userspace-kernel and mandatory-access controls when you need stronger mediation but still require container-like startup and workflows.
- Use a microVM or VM when the agent executes arbitrary downloaded code, handles sensitive inputs, serves multiple trust domains, or could cause serious harm through an escape.
- Use a separate broker or harness whenever authentication, publishing, infrastructure changes, or access to a protected service is involved. The agent should request a narrowly defined action, not receive a broad credential.
No cited guidance provides a universal escape-rate, effectiveness percentage, or performance benchmark. Choose controls from the task’s threat model, verify the actual boundary, and reassess whenever the agent gains a new tool or data source.
Frequently Asked Questions
Can I mount my project directory safely?
Mount a fresh, dedicated workspace rather than a parent home directory. Prefer read-only source mounts, keep outputs separate, and check for symlinks or Git worktrees that resolve outside the intended subtree. Any direct mount makes approved writes visible on the host.
How can an agent install packages without internet access?
Build dependencies in a trusted pipeline and provide a read-only package cache or internal mirror. If a registry must be contacted, route only that destination through an audited egress proxy and block all other traffic.
Is a container sufficient for malware analysis?
Not automatically. Containers share a host kernel and can be undermined by privileged flags, exposed sockets, vulnerable runtimes, or host callbacks. For hostile binaries or high-impact data, use a microVM or VM with no shared devices and a disposable guest.
Should I give the agent an SSH key so it can clone a repository?
Avoid personal keys. Use an isolated, repository-scoped credential with a short lifetime, or have the external harness fetch the repository and provide a read-only archive. Revoke the credential when the run ends.
How do I let an agent call one external API?
Place the sandbox behind a firewall or egress proxy that permits only that API’s destinations and required ports. Broker authentication outside the sandbox, log requests, and deny direct routes that bypass the proxy.
When should boundary tests be repeated?
Repeat them after any image, kernel, runtime, mount, firewall, proxy, credential, plugin, MCP server, or browser-profile change, and whenever the agent receives a new capability.
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