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This workflow separates four questions that are often confused: what the source appears to do, what its dependencies can do, what the runtime is allowed to reach, and whether the operating-system boundary can contain a mistake or exploit. A successful run answers none of those questions by itself.
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What “sandboxing” must protect
AI-generated code can be incorrect, overprivileged, or intentionally written to exfiltrate data. The risk is not limited to an obvious rm -rf. A short script can read environment variables, search a home directory, contact an attacker-controlled host, install a package, spawn a process, modify a project, or load another payload at runtime.
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- Data: source trees, customer records, private keys, API tokens, SSH agents, browser profiles and environment variables.
- Capabilities: filesystem read/write, network connections, child processes, native add-ons, dynamic code loading and persistence.
- Resources: CPU, memory, disk, process count, execution time and output volume.
- Evidence: logs, exit status, files changed, network destinations and dependency changes.
The required boundary follows the consequence of compromise. A script that processes public sample data can use a restricted disposable environment. Code that can see production credentials or regulated data should not be given those assets merely because a permission flag exists.
Inspection comes before execution
1. Preserve an inert copy
Save the generated response as text in a new, disposable directory. Do not paste secrets, production configuration or private files into an agent conversation or test directory that the script might read. Record the filename, generation date and the intended input and output so later changes are visible.
Do not install packages or run a project-level script at this stage. Package installation itself executes lifecycle hooks in many ecosystems, and a package can change between review and installation unless versions are pinned and the lockfile is enforced.
2. Read the complete entry point
Read from the first line to the last, including comments and error paths. Search is useful for triage, but it is not a proof of safety. Flag these review prompts:
eval,new Function, string-to-code conversion, WebAssembly loading and dynamicimport().- Node APIs such as
child_process,process,fs,net,http,https,tls,dns, native add-ons and worker creation. - Deno or browser APIs that access files, environment variables, subprocesses, sockets, storage or privileged messaging.
- Environment-variable reads, token-like strings, SSH paths, cloud metadata addresses, credential directories and code that serializes large amounts of local data.
- Obfuscation, compressed blobs, base64-decoded source, unexpectedly large minified sections, invisible Unicode characters and code unrelated to the stated task.
- Persistence mechanisms such as cron or scheduled-task edits, startup files, package-script changes, hidden cache directories and writes outside the working directory.
These indicators are prompts for a human review, not an exhaustive detector. Benign software can use dynamic loading, and malicious behavior can be split across ordinary-looking functions.
3. Trace every import
Make an import inventory that includes relative files, package names, URL imports and imports assembled from variables. Open each local module. For packages, inspect the lockfile, package metadata and lifecycle scripts; then check the package’s transitive dependencies. A small top-level dependency can bring in dozens of modules.
Remote imports deserve special suspicion because the bytes obtained at run time may differ from the code you reviewed. Prefer a local, reviewed copy with a lockfile and a recorded hash. If the runtime supports cached-only operation, use it so an unexpected import fails rather than fetching new code.
4. Map behavior to required capabilities
Write the minimum capability set in plain language before selecting flags. “Read fixtures/input.json, transform it, and write out/result.json” is testable. “Allow filesystem access” is not.
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| Observed behavior | Capability it implies | Review question |
|---|---|---|
| Reads a fixture | Read access to one directory or file | Why does it need anything outside that path? |
| Writes a result | Write access to a dedicated output directory | Can output be redirected to a temporary mount? |
| Calls an API | Outbound network to named hosts and ports | Is the destination required, and can responses contain code? |
| Uses a command-line tool | Subprocess and often filesystem or native-code access | Can the transformation be done without a child process? |
| Loads a package | Dependency and code-loading authority | Is the exact version locked and already reviewed? |
| Reads configuration | Environment or secret access | Can a non-secret configuration file be supplied instead? |
Any capability that cannot be justified is a reason to stop, simplify the code or move it to a stronger isolation boundary.
Why common JavaScript “sandboxes” are not enough
Node.js node:vm creates a context, not a security boundary
Node’s documentation states: “The node:vm module is not a security mechanism. Do not use it to run untrusted code.” A separate V8 context can isolate some globals and evaluate code with a different set of objects, but it remains inside the same process and runtime. A vulnerability, an exposed host object or an overlooked escape path can turn that context into access to the process.
Use node:vm for controlled templating or isolating code you already trust, not as the only barrier for AI output, third-party packages or hostile input. If the consequence of an escape matters, put the code in a separate process and add an operating-system or virtual-machine boundary.
Node’s Permission Model is a restriction layer, not an adversary-proof wall
Node’s Permission Model can deny selected filesystem, child-process, worker and native-add-on operations. Node describes it as a “seat belt” for trusted code and warns that malicious code can bypass it. That makes it useful for reducing accidental access in a cooperative program, but it does not replace process or VM isolation for hostile code.
When using it, grant only explicit paths and capabilities appropriate to the task, and confirm the exact flags for the Node version you deploy. A conceptual invocation is node --permission --allow-fs-read=./fixtures script.js; do not copy a broad allowlist merely to make an example run. Keep secrets out of the process even when permission flags are enabled.
Workers share more authority than their name suggests
A worker can reduce accidental interference and can receive a reduced permission set in some runtimes, but a worker in the same privilege domain is not equivalent to a process, container or VM. Deno’s guidance recommends reduced-permission workers as one layer and OS-level isolation or a VM/microVM as additional layers for arbitrary untrusted code.
Runtime choices and their boundaries
| Approach | Filesystem | Network and imports | Processes and native code | Credential exposure | Resource limits | Audit and disposal |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
node:vm context |
Shares process authority unless separately controlled | Not a policy boundary | Potentially reachable through escapes or exposed objects | Can be exposed by the host process | Not a complete OS resource boundary | Application logging only; state is not inherently disposable |
| Node Permission Model | Allowlisted operations can be reduced | Does not make hostile code safe; review runtime behavior | Selected capabilities can be denied, but malicious bypass is documented | Secrets remain dangerous if present in the process | Use external limits for CPU, memory and time | Useful logs plus a separate disposable environment |
| Deno permissions | Denied by default; grant specific paths | Denied unless granted; constrain hosts and imports | Permission controls reduce access but do not replace isolation | Do not provide secrets; permissions are not a secret manager | Add process or container limits | Permission audit logs can show attempted access |
| Reduced-permission worker | Depends on the parent runtime | Inherits the limits the runtime actually enforces | Same privilege domain unless another boundary is added | Parent mistakes can expose objects or data | Worker limits are not a full OS quota | Requires explicit logging and cleanup |
| Separate process or container | Use an empty or read-only filesystem and narrow mounts | Disable networking or allowlist destinations | Drop privileges and block unnecessary syscalls or binaries | Do not mount credential stores or pass secret environment variables | Set CPU, memory, process-count and wall-clock limits | Capture logs and destroy the instance after the run |
| VM or microVM | Separate guest filesystem and explicit shared volumes | Virtual network policy can be deny-by-default | Stronger boundary for arbitrary code; still configure the guest carefully | Keep host credentials outside the guest | Hypervisor and guest quotas can be enforced | Ephemeral images make reset and forensic review practical |
| Hosted ephemeral sandbox | Hypervisor-isolated disposable VM, subject to provider settings | Policy depends on configuration; omitted network restrictions may be permissive | Designed for arbitrary workloads, but inspect limits and controls | Scope secrets explicitly and avoid ambient credentials | Review provider quotas, timeouts and billing controls | Use provider logs, then destroy or expire the workspace |
The table compares security properties, not product guarantees. Isolation is only as strong as the host configuration, image, mounts, identity and cleanup process.
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Step 1: Define an acceptance test
Describe the input, expected output, allowed files, permitted hosts, maximum runtime and acceptable failure behavior. Create synthetic fixtures instead of copying production data. If the task cannot be expressed without broad access, treat that as a design problem rather than silently granting more permissions.
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Step 2: Build a clean review directory
- Create a new directory owned by a non-privileged user.
- Place the generated source, a minimal fixture and a separate output directory inside it.
- Remove inherited credentials from environment variables, credential files, SSH agents, cloud metadata access and mounted home directories.
- Record the intended dependency versions and preserve the lockfile.
Keep the review directory separate from repositories that contain uncommitted work. A script that deletes or rewrites files should not be able to damage your source tree.
Step 3: Review and constrain dependencies
Prefer a known, reviewed dependency set. Resolve packages before execution, inspect lifecycle scripts and verify that the lockfile is the one you reviewed. In Deno workflows, --frozen can require the lockfile to match the dependency graph, while --cached-only prevents loading code that is not already cached. These controls stop unexpected changes; they do not prove that every locked dependency is trustworthy.
Dependency permission control and dependency vulnerability scanning answer different questions. Deno’s security guidance explicitly distinguishes its permission system from auditing known vulnerabilities. Run the appropriate audit for the package ecosystem, then inspect high-risk or opaque dependencies rather than treating a clean audit as a behavioral guarantee.
Step 4: Start with default-deny permissions
Deno denies most sensitive system I/O unless it is explicitly granted. A pure transformation can begin with no filesystem, network, environment or subprocess permissions. Add only the smallest required grant, for example a read-only fixture path or one required network host. Keep imports local or cached and fail closed when an import is unavailable.
Illustrative shape:
deno run --deny-all --allow-read=./fixtures --allow-write=./out --frozen --cached-only transform.jsAdjust flags to the exact Deno release and workload. If the program unexpectedly requests another capability, stop and investigate the code path instead of adding a broad allowlist. Deno’s permission audit facilities can record attempted access, which helps explain why a run failed and whether it tried to reach something outside the plan.
Step 5: Add a real isolation boundary
For arbitrary AI-generated code, run a disposable process, container, VM or microVM. Deno’s guidance names operating-system mechanisms such as chroot, cgroups and seccomp, or a VM/microVM, alongside restricted permissions and reduced-permission workers. The exact configuration depends on the host operating system and workload, but the controls should cover:
- Non-root identity and a minimal image.
- No sensitive host mounts; use a temporary read-only input mount and a separate output mount.
- Network disabled by default, or restricted to an explicit destination list.
- Blocked or tightly controlled child processes and native-code loading.
- CPU, memory, process-count, disk and wall-clock limits.
- Read-only base image and automatic destruction after completion.
A hosted option such as Deno Sandbox describes ephemeral hypervisor-isolated VMs for untrusted or AI-generated work. Its security documentation also warns that outbound networking is unrestricted when allowNet is omitted. Therefore, review its network policy, secret scoping, quotas and cleanup behavior rather than assuming “hosted” means deny-by-default.
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Step 6: Observe the run
Capture standard output, standard error, exit status, start and stop times, resource-limit events, attempted network connections and files created or modified. Keep logs outside the disposable workspace so the script cannot rewrite its record. Hash or archive the reviewed source and lockfile with the run record.
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Unexpected behavior is a stop condition: a connection to an unlisted host, a request for a credential, a new package, a write outside the output directory, a child process or output far larger than expected. Do not “just allow it” to see whether the task finishes.
Step 7: Review artifacts and destroy state
Inspect every output file, generated script, dependency change and network destination. Treat output as untrusted too; a generated report can contain active markup, links or embedded instructions. Move only the specific, reviewed result into another environment. Destroy the container, VM or hosted workspace and revoke any temporary token or account used for the run.
Independent reader supportYour contribution helps us test, update, and keep practical guides available for everyone.Network, imports and secrets deserve separate controls
Network access
Network permission is data-exfiltration permission. If a request is necessary, allowlist the exact hostnames and ports, block direct access to internal address ranges and prevent DNS or proxy configuration from silently widening the policy. Consider whether the response can deliver executable code or a second-stage dependency. Record destination, DNS result, byte count and failure reason.
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Remote and dynamic imports
Static review cannot cover code that is downloaded later. Replace URL imports with reviewed local modules where practical. Pin versions, enforce the lockfile and use cached-only execution when supported. If dynamic loading is essential, treat every permitted source as part of the trusted computing base and monitor the fetched bytes.
Secrets and identity
Do not pass production tokens, cloud credentials, SSH agents or browser data to an untrusted process. If a task genuinely needs a service, issue a short-lived token scoped to one operation and one resource, inject it through a controlled mechanism and revoke it afterward. A permission flag that blocks ordinary file reads does not make an accidentally exposed environment variable safe.
How to interpret evidence from prior sandbox failures
Sandbox escape history is a reason to layer defenses, not a current incident-rate statistic. The SandDriller paper in the 32nd USENIX Security Symposium (2023) listed 15 known vm2 breakouts and zero unfixed at the time of its study. Its table reflects the vulnerabilities known and unfixed during that study, with an npm download snapshot dated 2022-10-09; it is not a claim about the number of exploitable breakouts today.
The practical lesson is broader: a library that promises an in-process JavaScript sandbox can contain defects, and patch status changes over time. Keep such libraries away from the only boundary protecting sensitive systems. Apply updates, but still use process or VM isolation for code you do not trust.
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Browser execution is a different threat model
Running generated JavaScript in a browser can reduce direct access to the host filesystem, but the page’s origin, embedded resources, messaging and browser vulnerabilities determine the result. Browser-specific claims about iframe sandbox tokens, origin separation and Web Worker permissions must be checked against the current browser documentation for the exact deployment. Do not assume that moving code into an iframe or worker automatically provides the same isolation as a separate process or VM.
For a browser tool, use a dedicated origin, a strict Content Security Policy, no access to authenticated application origins, explicit message validation and a disposable profile where feasible. Keep this separate from the server-side workflow: browser policy controls and operating-system isolation solve different problems.
Failure modes and recovery decisions
The script asks for broad access
Stop and compare the request with the acceptance test. Narrow the code or provide a synthetic input. If broad access is intrinsic to the task, move execution to a stronger disposable environment instead of granting a home directory or production mount.
The dependency graph changes
Discard the environment, re-resolve from a reviewed manifest, inspect the new dependency and rerun the audit. Do not accept a lockfile update merely because the command succeeded.
The run times out or consumes resources
Terminate the disposable instance, preserve logs and output for analysis, then reduce input size or set a tighter algorithmic and resource budget. A timeout can indicate an infinite loop, denial-of-service behavior or an unexpected network wait.
An unexpected file or connection appears
Do not reuse the output. Preserve the source, logs and filesystem diff, revoke any temporary credentials and investigate the code and dependency that initiated the action. If the environment had access to real secrets, rotate them.
The result looks correct
Correct output is not evidence of benign behavior. A script can produce the expected file while also reading unrelated data, contacting a second host or leaving persistence. Complete the artifact, network and dependency review before promotion.
A practical decision rule
- Trusted, reviewed code: ordinary runtime controls may be sufficient, with least privilege and monitoring.
- Generated code using public fixtures: default-deny permissions plus a disposable process or container and strict resource limits.
- Unknown dependencies, network access or native code: VM or microVM isolation, deny-by-default networking and no host credentials.
- Production data or credentials involved: redesign the task to remove them; if that is impossible, use a separately managed high-assurance execution service with explicit identity, logging and destruction controls.
Inspection finds suspicious behavior; permissions limit ordinary reach; process and operating-system isolation contain runtime mistakes; VMs or microVMs add a stronger boundary for high-risk workloads. Use all layers that match the consequence of failure, and never treat a normal completion as a security verdict.
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