Estimate a thermoelectric generator’s electrical output from the temperature difference across the module’s faces, its Seebeck coefficient and internal resistance, and the resistance of the connected load. The key distinction: the temperature difference between a heat source and room air is not necessarily the temperature difference across the module.
What you need to estimate output
- Hot-face temperature (Th) and cold-face temperature (Tc) while the module is operating.
- The module’s Seebeck coefficient (S) and internal electrical resistance (Rinternal), taken from its datasheet for relevant operating conditions.
- The resistance of the connected load, Rload, if you want to estimate loaded output.
Set the module temperature difference to ΔT = Th − Tc. Measure at the module faces, or use values that represent those faces. Heat sinks, mounting and thermal interfaces affect the temperatures the module actually reaches; source temperature minus room temperature can therefore give the wrong ΔT. The 2022 AIMS Energy review of TEG configurations defines the relevant difference at the generator’s hot and cold sides.
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Calculate voltage and power for a single module
A useful first estimate treats the module as a voltage source in series with its internal resistance. For a simple constant-property model:
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Open-circuit voltage is measured with no load connected. It is not the voltage or power the module will deliver when operating a load.
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Include the connected load
For load resistance Rload, estimate current, load voltage and load power as follows:
- Current: I = Voc ÷ (Rinternal + Rload)
- Load voltage: Vload = I × Rload
- Load power: Pload = I² × Rload = Voc² × Rload ÷ (Rinternal + Rload)²
The terminal voltage under load is lower than the open-circuit voltage because some voltage drops across the module’s internal resistance. Ferrotec’s thermoelectric power-generation reference describes this source-and-load approach.
Estimate the matched-load benchmark
In the simple electrical model, maximum power transfer to a resistive load occurs when Rload = Rinternal. At that point:
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Use this as a benchmark for fixed module-face temperatures and constant properties, not a guarantee of the output a physical setup will sustain. The load changes the electrical operating point; the real assembly must also maintain its hot- and cold-face temperatures.
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Account for datasheet conditions and thermal limits
Thermoelectric properties are not necessarily constant: Seebeck coefficient, electrical resistance and thermal conductance can vary with temperature. Ferrotec’s reference selects properties at the average module temperature, (Th + Tc) ÷ 2. Use the module manufacturer’s stated values and test conditions rather than assuming a coefficient or resistance applies at every temperature.
A calculation that assumes fixed face temperatures can overestimate practical output if the system cannot deliver enough heat to the hot face or remove enough heat from the cold face to hold those temperatures. The equations estimate electrical output at the assumed operating point; a system-specific thermal model or measurements are needed to establish whether the setup can sustain that point.
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Example of a conditional manufacturer rating
Wellentech lists its TEG-07-4006 at 11.7 W under a matched-load condition with a 200°C hot side and a 27°C cold side; the page’s publication year is not stated. It also specifies 16 V open circuit, 5.5 Ω matched-load resistance, and 8.0 V at 1.46 A under matched load. The listed loaded voltage and current yield about 11.7 W when multiplied, subject to rounding. These are product specifications at stated conditions, not a typical result or a prediction for another module or installation. See the Wellentech TEG-07-4006 specification.
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Estimate output from multiple modules
For an array, determine its equivalent voltage and resistance before applying the load calculation. Identical modules in series raise the array voltage and resistance; identical modules in parallel increase current capability and lower total resistance. The load should be assessed against the array’s equivalent source resistance, not the resistance of one module in isolation. Actual array behavior also depends on the modules’ operating temperatures and configuration. The AIMS Energy review discusses electrical configurations and resistance matching.
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Make the estimate more useful
- Measure both module faces in the intended thermal setup and calculate ΔT = Th − Tc. Do not substitute heat-source and ambient-air temperatures unless they match the module-face temperatures.
- Read S and Rinternal from the relevant datasheet conditions. Note the specified temperatures and how the values are defined; use temperature-appropriate properties where available.
- Choose the actual load resistance or calculate the equivalent load and source resistance for the complete series/parallel array.
- Calculate Voc, then loaded current, voltage and power. Keep the open-circuit result separate from the loaded result.
- Measure the operating point. With the module under the intended thermal conditions and load, record face temperatures and loaded voltage and current. Compare those measurements with the datasheet’s test conditions.
A multimeter and contact temperature probes can support these measurements. Heat sinks, thermal-interface material and mounting hardware affect the thermal setup, but the suitable choices depend on the application; they do not guarantee a particular temperature difference or output.
Compare modules on equal terms
Output ratings are meaningful only alongside the conditions under which they were specified. When comparing modules, align the hot- and cold-face temperatures, load or matched-load convention, temperature-measurement method and electrical configuration. Then compare the datasheet’s Seebeck coefficient, internal resistance, temperature limits, size and mounting conditions. A wattage figure without these boundaries is not a like-for-like comparison.
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