The safest default is to build on a GitHub-hosted runner, copy an immutable release to your VPS over SSH, activate it with a least-privilege deploy account, run a health check, and keep the previous release available for rollback. A self-hosted runner on the VPS is an alternative when jobs need direct Docker, filesystem, or service-manager access, but it puts runner patching and job isolation on you.
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Choose how GitHub Actions reaches your VPS
There are two sound deployment architectures. In the first, a temporary GitHub-hosted runner checks out the commit, runs tests and the build, then opens an outbound SSH connection to the VPS. The server receives an archive or pulls a container image, switches to that version, and restarts the application. In the second, a self-hosted runner is installed on the VPS and executes the workflow locally.
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| Decision axis | GitHub-hosted runner plus SSH | Self-hosted runner on the VPS |
|---|---|---|
| Network path | The VPS accepts SSH from the runner’s egress address. | The runner makes outbound connections to GitHub and executes locally. |
| Maintenance | GitHub manages the ephemeral runner image; you still patch the VPS. | You patch and harden the runner host, operating system, and installed software. |
| Isolation | The build runs on GitHub-hosted infrastructure. | Jobs run in the VPS environment. A deployment environment does not automatically place a self-hosted job in a container. |
| Local access | Artifacts, images, and commands cross SSH. | Docker, filesystems, systemd, and local networks are directly available. |
| Typical failures | SSH reachability, key rotation, host-key verification, or artifact transfer. | Runner downtime, queueing, limited capacity, host compromise, or a damaged runner installation. |
Use hosted runners plus SSH unless a specific requirement demands local execution. A self-hosted runner is a system you deploy and manage to execute GitHub Actions jobs; its application must be running on the host to accept work. GitHub supports physical, virtual, containerized, on-premises, and cloud machines, but the operator remains responsible for the machine and its software.
What you need before writing the workflow
- A Linux VPS with a fixed hostname or address, an application runtime or Docker, and only the inbound ports your application needs.
- A non-root account dedicated to deployment, with a home directory and write access to the release directories.
- A service manager configuration, normally systemd or a container supervisor, that can start the application from a stable path such as
/srv/myapp/current. - A repository build contract: a test command, a reproducible build command, and a known output directory or image name.
- A production branch, release tag, or manual dispatch policy that prevents every feature-branch push from reaching production.
Decide what constitutes a release before automating it. An archive should contain the exact built files and dependencies needed by the server. For a container deployment, tag the image with the full commit SHA rather than relying only on a mutable latest tag.
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Prepare the VPS
Create a restricted deployment account
Log in as an administrator for the initial setup, then create a user that is not root. The name is not important; the permissions are.
sudo adduser deploy
sudo install -d -o deploy -g deploy /srv/myapp/releases
sudo ln -s /srv/myapp/releases/empty /srv/myapp/currentCreate the empty directory before making the initial link, or omit the link until the first release. Give the account ownership only where it needs to write. If restarting the service requires elevated privileges, grant a narrowly scoped sudo rule for the exact systemd operations instead of giving the account a full root shell.
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echo 'deploy ALL=(root) NOPASSWD: /bin/systemctl restart myapp.service, /bin/systemctl status myapp.service' | sudo tee /etc/sudoers.d/myapp-deploy
sudo chmod 440 /etc/sudoers.d/myapp-deploy
sudo visudo -cf /etc/sudoers.d/myapp-deployAdjust the binary path to the distribution’s actual systemctl location and validate the rule before using it. Do not allow arbitrary commands through sudo.
Configure the service and release layout
Keep each release in its own directory and make the service read through a symlink. This makes a rollback a link change rather than an in-place file overwrite.
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[Unit]
Description=My application
After=network.target
[Service]
User=deploy
WorkingDirectory=/srv/myapp/current
ExecStart=/srv/myapp/current/bin/start
Restart=on-failure
EnvironmentFile=/etc/myapp/myapp.env
[Install]
WantedBy=multi-user.targetSave the unit as /etc/systemd/system/myapp.service, install runtime secrets in a root-readable environment file or another secret store, then run:
sudo systemctl daemon-reload
sudo systemctl enable myapp.serviceYour real ExecStart may launch a runtime, a compiled binary, or a container wrapper. Keep secrets outside the release archive so a copied release cannot expose them.
Limit the network surface
Allow SSH and the application ports you actually use. Bind administrative interfaces to a private network or localhost where possible. The deployment account needs outbound access for the application only if the application requires it; it does not need unrestricted inbound access from the public internet.
Create and install a deployment SSH key
Generate a key used only by this repository or production environment. Ed25519 is a practical default.
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ssh-keygen -t ed25519 -C 'github-actions-production' -f github-actions-productionAppend the public key to the deploy user’s authorized keys on the VPS:
sudo install -d -m 700 -o deploy -g deploy /home/deploy/.ssh
sudo sh -c 'cat github-actions-production.pub >> /home/deploy/.ssh/authorized_keys'
sudo chown deploy:deploy /home/deploy/.ssh/authorized_keys
sudo chmod 600 /home/deploy/.ssh/authorized_keysWhere practical, restrict this key in authorized_keys with options such as no-agent-forwarding, no-port-forwarding, no-X11-forwarding, and no-user-rc. A forced command can permit only your deployment script, but test it carefully because an overly strict command can prevent artifact transfer.
In the repository’s production environment, add secrets named VPS_HOST, VPS_PORT, VPS_USER, and VPS_SSH_KEY. Store the complete private key, including its begin and end lines, in VPS_SSH_KEY. Never put it in workflow YAML, source code, an issue, or a build artifact. Record the server’s host-key fingerprint independently and place the verified key in a repository secret such as VPS_KNOWN_HOSTS; do not blindly trust an unverified result from ssh-keyscan.
Build once and deploy an immutable release
The workflow should test and build once, then deploy the exact output it produced. Rebuilding on the VPS can produce a different dependency tree, compiler result, or configuration.
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Example hosted-runner workflow
This example assumes the repository provides executable scripts named ci/test.sh and ci/build-release.sh. The build script must create a directory named release containing the files the service needs.
name: Deploy production
on:
push:
branches: [main]
workflow_dispatch:
permissions:
contents: read
jobs:
deploy:
runs-on: ubuntu-latest
environment: production
steps:
- name: Check out source
uses: actions/checkout@v4
- name: Run tests
run: ./ci/test.sh
- name: Build release
run: ./ci/build-release.sh
- name: Package immutable artifact
run: tar -czf app-${GITHUB_SHA}.tgz release
- name: Install SSH client
run: sudo apt-get update && sudo apt-get install --yes openssh-client
- name: Configure SSH
shell: bash
run: |
install -d -m 700 ~/.ssh
printf '%sn' '${{ secrets.VPS_SSH_KEY }}' > ~/.ssh/deploy_key
printf '%sn' '${{ secrets.VPS_KNOWN_HOSTS }}' > ~/.ssh/known_hosts
chmod 600 ~/.ssh/deploy_key ~/.ssh/known_hosts
- name: Copy artifact and activation script
run: |
scp -i ~/.ssh/deploy_key -P '${{ secrets.VPS_PORT }}' app-${GITHUB_SHA}.tgz deploy/activate.sh '${{ secrets.VPS_USER }}@${{ secrets.VPS_HOST }}:/tmp/'
- name: Activate release
run: |
ssh -i ~/.ssh/deploy_key -p '${{ secrets.VPS_PORT }}' '${{ secrets.VPS_USER }}@${{ secrets.VPS_HOST }}' 'bash /tmp/activate.sh' '${GITHUB_SHA}'
- name: Record deployment
run: echo "Deployed ${GITHUB_SHA} by ${GITHUB_ACTOR} at $(date -u +%Y-%m-%dT%H:%M:%SZ)"Pin third-party actions such as checkout to a reviewed commit SHA, or use a maintained major version under a policy that regularly reviews updates. The example’s major-version notation is readable, but a SHA pin gives stronger supply-chain control. Keep the production environment on the job so its approval gate and secrets apply only to production.
Write an idempotent activation script
Store this script in the repository as deploy/activate.sh. It expects the archive and script to arrive in /tmp, creates a release directory named for the commit, and preserves the previous target if activation or the health check fails.
#!/usr/bin/env bash
set -euo pipefail
sha=${1:?commit SHA is required}
archive=/tmp/app-${sha}.tgz
release=/srv/myapp/releases/${sha}
previous=$(readlink -f /srv/myapp/current || true)
test -f "$archive"
test ! -e "$release" || rm -rf "$release"
install -d -o deploy -g deploy "$release"
tar -xzf "$archive" -C "$release" --strip-components=1
ln -sfn "$release" /srv/myapp/current
sudo systemctl restart myapp.service
if ! curl --fail --silent --show-error --max-time 10 http://127.0.0.1:8080/health; then
if test -n "$previous" && test -d "$previous"; then
ln -sfn "$previous" /srv/myapp/current
sudo systemctl restart myapp.service
fi
exit 1
fi
rm -f "$archive" /tmp/activate.shMake the script executable and ensure the archive’s internal layout matches the extraction command. The health endpoint should verify the application is ready, not merely that a process exists. For a database migration, define whether the migration is backward-compatible before enabling automatic rollback; a code rollback cannot undo a destructive schema change.
Independent reader supportYour contribution helps us test, update, and keep practical guides available for everyone.Use GitHub deployment environments for production controls
In the repository, open Settings → Environments → New environment and create production. Add required reviewers, restrict which branches or tags may deploy, and place production-only secrets there. The workflow’s environment: production declaration pauses the job until the configured approval is granted and prevents development jobs from receiving those secrets.
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Protect the production branch separately with required pull-request reviews, passing checks, and restrictions on who can push. A manual workflow_dispatch trigger is useful for a rollback or an emergency redeploy, but it should still target the protected environment.
When a self-hosted runner is the better fit
Choose a self-hosted runner when the workflow must use a local Docker daemon, private network, large cache, attached volume, or service manager that is difficult to expose safely over SSH. Install the runner application on a dedicated machine or isolated VM, register it with the repository or organization, and apply a distinctive label such as deploy-vps. Keep the runner service running so it can accept jobs.
jobs:
deploy:
runs-on: [self-hosted, linux, deploy-vps]
environment: production
steps:
- uses: actions/checkout@v4
- run: ./ci/test.sh
- run: ./ci/build-release.sh
- run: ./deploy/local-activate.shLabels select a runner; they are not a security boundary. Restrict which repositories can use the runner, avoid broad organization-wide registration, and do not put unrelated workloads on the same host. GitHub notes that self-hosted jobs are not container-isolated merely because a deployment environment is used. A compromised workflow can potentially read local files, credentials, Docker sockets, and other trust-boundary resources available to the runner account.
Run the runner under a dedicated account, patch the operating system and runner promptly, monitor job and system logs, cap disk usage, and remove the registration when the repository or team no longer needs access. Treat the runner as production infrastructure rather than as a disposable build VM.
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Secrets, tokens, and supply-chain safeguards
- Use GitHub Actions secrets or environment secrets for private keys, registry credentials, and runtime configuration. Masking is not a substitute for avoiding accidental command output.
- The built-in
GITHUB_TOKENauthenticates workflow actions to GitHub and expires after 60 minutes. It does not replace the separately scoped SSH key or registry credential required by the VPS. - Grant the workflow only the permissions it needs;
contents: readis sufficient for the checkout in this example. - Rotate the deployment key after a runner compromise, team change, repository transfer, or unexplained access. Remove the public key from
authorized_keyswhen it is retired. - Use immutable commit-SHA artifact names and record the commit, actor, environment, and UTC deployment time in the workflow log or an external audit system.
- Make the remote script safe to rerun. A retry should either detect an existing release or replace it deterministically, not partially overwrite the active directory.
Health checks, rollback, and retention
A successful SSH command proves only that a command ran. The workflow should fail unless the service responds correctly after activation. Check an authenticated internal endpoint when possible, verify a dependency that is essential to serving traffic, and set a finite timeout so a hung request cannot leave the job waiting indefinitely.
Retain at least the currently active release and the immediately previous known-good release. A rollback consists of changing /srv/myapp/current back to the previous directory, restarting the service, and running the same health check. Keep a separate, documented command for operators who need to perform this without rerunning the build. Delete older releases only after the new release has passed its observation period and logs have been retained.
Quick Recap
Troubleshoot the common failures
| Symptom | Likely cause | Fix |
|---|---|---|
Permission denied (publickey) |
The wrong private key, user, file mode, or public-key location is being used. | Confirm the secret contains the complete key, the workflow uses the intended user and port, and authorized_keys is owned by that user with mode 600. Test with verbose SSH logging from a controlled machine. |
| Host-key verification failed | The stored fingerprint is absent or no longer matches the VPS. | Verify the new fingerprint out of band before updating VPS_KNOWN_HOSTS. Do not disable host-key checking to make the job pass. |
| The archive copies but activation fails | The deploy account cannot write the release directory, the archive layout differs from the script, or the sudo rule is wrong. | Check ownership, inspect the archive contents, run the activation script interactively as the deploy user, and validate the sudoers file. |
| The service restarts but the health check fails | The application has a startup error, missing runtime secret, incompatible migration, or incorrect bind address. | Read journalctl -u myapp.service, verify the environment file and listening port, then activate the previous release. |
| A self-hosted job remains queued | No online runner matches every label in runs-on, or the runner is busy. |
Check the runner’s online status, labels, service process, and capacity. Remove stale labels and registrations. |
| A rerun produces a different result | The workflow rebuilds on the server or pulls a mutable image tag. | Build once on the runner, identify the artifact by commit SHA, and deploy that exact archive or image digest. |
Recommended operating pattern
- Prepare the VPS with a non-root deploy account, a service definition, a release directory, and a restricted firewall.
- Create a repository-specific SSH key, verify the server fingerprint, and store the private key and connection details in the production environment.
- Trigger only from a protected branch, release tag, or approved manual dispatch.
- Check out the commit, run tests, and build exactly once on a hosted runner.
- Package a versioned archive or publish a container image tagged with the commit SHA.
- Transfer or pull that immutable artifact, activate it through an idempotent script, and keep the previous release.
- Run a readiness check, record who deployed what and when, and fail the job on an unhealthy service.
- For self-hosted execution, apply a dedicated label, limit repository access, patch the host, and assume jobs can reach the runner’s local trust boundary.
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