Protein analysis can reveal the animal or biological material behind an artifact when appearance alone is inconclusive. By examining preserved proteins—often collagen—scientists can sometimes identify a species in bone, ivory, parchment, leather, wool, and other objects. The result depends on what survives, which method is used, and how carefully contamination and other evidence are assessed.
What can proteins reveal about a museum object?
Proteins are biological molecules that can persist in archaeological, historic, and paleontological materials. Their surviving traces may help researchers determine what an object was made from, trace its biological source, and place it in historical or environmental context. Protein evidence also informs research into ancient diets and subsistence, health and disease, evolution, and relationships among species. It is one line of evidence, not a complete account of an object’s history.
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The Smithsonian Museum Conservation Institute describes proteomics as a way to investigate collection materials, origins, historical and biological contexts, and deterioration. Its work includes bone and teeth, keratin-rich tissues such as hair and wool, collagen-based materials, and protein binders found in complex artworks. The American Museum of Natural History’s Ancient Biomolecular Lab, which opened in fall 2022, is another example of museum-based infrastructure for studying ancient and historic biomolecules.
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ZooMS looks for identifying protein sequences
Zooarchaeology by Mass Spectrometry, or ZooMS, uses characteristic sequences in collagen and other preserved proteins to identify animal taxa. Collagen is common in materials such as bone, teeth, and ivory, making it useful when an object’s appearance does not settle which animal supplied the material. The University of York describes ZooMS as a rapid, low-cost method for archaeological and historic materials; that description refers to the method in research settings, not a guarantee that every sample will yield an identification.
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Proteomics can examine a broader protein signal
Mass-spectrometry-based protein sequencing and proteomics can characterize proteins in a sample and help answer questions beyond a targeted taxonomic identification. Other approaches include immunoassays aimed at particular proteins and amino-acid analysis. These methods answer different questions: detecting that protein is present does not, by itself, identify a species, and identifying a species from selected sequences is not the same as reconstructing an entire ancient proteome.
A case study: distinguishing ivory in ancient objects
On March 15, 2024, The Metropolitan Museum of Art announced a collaboration with the French National Center for Scientific Research and the University of Bordeaux that developed a proteomics method to characterize ivory in museum objects. The project addressed sequence uncertainties and identified species in objects from several regions. In Ancient Egyptian material, the Met reported that the method differentiated elephant and hippopotamus ivory. This is a specific reported result; it does not establish that every ivory object can be identified with equal certainty.
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The case shows why protein analysis matters to museums: two materials that can be difficult to distinguish by visual examination may carry different biological signatures. A result can sharpen an object’s material description and contribute to its historical interpretation, while still needing to be considered alongside other evidence.
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Protein analysis is not limited to bones or museum specimens. Depending on the question and preservation, researchers have applied related methods to:
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- Bone, teeth, and ivory
- Parchment and leather
- Hair and wool
- Horn and other protein-rich tissues
- Proteinaceous binders and other materials in complex artworks
The technique must suit both the material and the question. A method intended to identify an animal source is not interchangeable with one designed to detect a particular protein or study deterioration.
Does protein analysis damage the object?
Sometimes sampling is required, so it would be inaccurate to call all protein analysis noninvasive. The amount and type of sampling depend on the method, the condition of the material, and the information sought. Conservators and researchers must weigh the value of an answer against the risk of removing material from an object.
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A 2017 study reported an in-situ method for analyzing proteins and small molecules from ancient objects that required no microsampling and left the tested object unchanged. That demonstrates that noninvasive approaches have been developed; it does not mean every protein-analysis technique can be performed without sampling.
What can make a result uncertain?
Preservation and degradation
Proteins break down over time, and the material that remains may be incomplete or altered. The amount and quality of surviving evidence affect whether a method can produce a useful identification. A failed or ambiguous result does not necessarily mean the object lacks biological material; it may mean that too little diagnostic evidence survives.
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Contamination and authentication
Proteins from people, microbes, handling, or other sources can complicate analysis. The American Museum of Natural History says its Ancient Biomolecular Lab uses decontamination practices to address contamination concerns. Researchers also need transparent methods and careful interpretation to distinguish a genuine ancient signal from contamination or analytical artifacts.
In a 2018 methodological guide, Jessica Hendy and coauthors noted that explicit consensus on reporting, validation, and contamination controls was lacking at that time. They urged precautions and standards throughout the process, from sample selection to interpreting results. That statement describes the field as characterized in 2018; it should not be taken as a claim about current consensus.
One result is not the whole story
Protein evidence is strongest when interpreted in context with the object’s condition, archaeological or historical setting, and other relevant evidence. A sequence-based identification can support a biological source, but it does not automatically establish where an object was made, who used it, or the full history of its materials.
How to read a protein-based identification
When a museum reports that analysis identified an object’s material or species, the useful questions are:
- What material and specific question did the researchers study?
- Was the result a broad indication that protein was present, or a taxonomic identification based on diagnostic sequences?
- How was the sample obtained, and was the method invasive, microsampling-based, or in situ?
- What steps addressed contamination, preservation, and validation?
- How does the protein evidence fit with other information about the object?
These distinctions help separate a promising material clue from a more definitive identification. Protein analysis can make museum objects more legible, but its conclusions remain bounded by the evidence that survives and the method used to examine it.
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