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Paper ballots and voter-verifiable paper records give election officials an independent, human-readable account of voter choices. After voting, officials preserve those records, select ballots under the audit method required in their jurisdiction, and compare what people marked with machine totals or electronic cast vote records. That comparison can reveal tabulation, programming, configuration, handling, or procedural problems that a second electronic tally could miss.
An audit is evidence about an election, not a universal guarantee. U.S. states and localities use different audit laws and methods, and an election-night total is generally unofficial until canvassing and certification are complete. The applicable election office can explain the rules for a particular contest.
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Why a paper record matters
A voter-marked paper ballot or a paper record printed by a ballot-marking device is a human-readable account of the selections made. In a voter-verifiable design, the voter has an opportunity to review that record before casting it. Officials can later inspect or hand-count the paper and compare it with the machine’s interpretation.
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A paperless voting system does not provide this same paper-based tabulation check. Repeating an electronic tally is still another electronic tally; it is not an independent comparison with a physical record. The U.S. Election Assistance Commission (EAC) explains that paper ballots or a human-readable paper record are required for a post-election tabulation audit.
Different records support different audits. A hand-marked ballot, a voter-verified printout, and records produced by other voting equipment are not automatically interchangeable. The audit design must match what the system actually records and how those records can be retrieved.
How election audits work, step by step
- Voting creates the record. The voter marks a paper ballot or reviews a printed, voter-verifiable record before casting it. The voting system also creates its electronic tally records.
- Officials secure and organize the evidence. Ballots, electronic records, and relevant logs are preserved under local chain-of-custody procedures. A ballot manifest catalogs physical ballots and their locations—such as scanner, batch, container, or sequence—so a selected ballot can be found.
- The jurisdiction chooses the sample or scope. Officials follow state and local law. A traditional audit may specify a fixed number of ballots or precincts; a risk-limiting audit (RLA) uses a statistical sampling process; a procedural audit examines whether required steps were followed.
- Auditors interpret the selected records. Trained reviewers determine voter intent on the sampled paper records and compare those interpretations with the reported machine totals, cast vote records (CVRs), or batch totals required by the method.
- The evidence is evaluated. If the observed discrepancies are consistent with the reported outcome, the audit can stop under its rules. If the evidence is not sufficient, an RLA can expand its sample, potentially reaching a full hand count. Other audit laws specify their own escalation or corrective steps.
- Results are reported during canvass and certification. Audit findings become part of the jurisdiction’s post-election process. Election-night numbers may remain unofficial while valid ballots are aggregated, challenges resolved, and the result certified.
What records auditors need
Paper ballots and voter-verifiable records
These are the physical records auditors inspect to determine what was marked. A voter-verifiable record is meaningful only if the voter had a real chance to review it and the record was securely cast and preserved. Auditors must apply the jurisdiction’s rules for interpreting marks, write-ins, overvotes, and voter intent.
Cast vote records
A CVR is a permanent record of the votes attributed to one voter, in electronic, paper, or another form. In a ballot-level comparison audit, officials match a selected paper ballot to its corresponding CVR and compare selections contest by contest. Reliable matching must not expose how an individual voted.
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Ballot manifests
A ballot manifest is an official catalog of ballots and their physical locations. It lets an audit system select a ballot and lets staff retrieve the correct item. The EAC describes a usable manifest as a requirement for an RLA because a random selection is worthless if the selected ballot cannot be located reliably.
Random seeds and selection records
An RLA uses a documented random-selection procedure. EAC RLA terminology describes a random seed of at least 10–20 digits for generating a sequence of ballot selections. The seed is one input to the procedure, not proof by itself that a selection was fair or that an election was correct. Officials should document who generated it, when, with what process, and how the resulting sequence was applied.
Custody and event logs
Chain-of-custody records show which ballots and electronic media were authorized, transported, stored, accessed, and reviewed. Event logs and access records help establish that the items audited are the same items cast and counted. Voting-system guidance also emphasizes exporting CVRs in an interoperable format and identifying ballot locations by scanner, batch, or sequence.
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Main types of election audits
| Method | What is checked | Records needed | Typical conclusion |
|---|---|---|---|
| Procedural or compliance audit | Whether required steps, controls, and policies were followed | Procedures, logs, forms, custody records, and other administrative evidence | Whether the process complied with applicable rules; it may not retabulate votes |
| Traditional post-election tabulation audit | A specified sample of ballots is retabulated and compared with reported totals | Paper ballots or voter-verifiable records and the totals required by local law | Whether the audited sample agrees with the reported count under that procedure |
| Ballot-polling RLA | Randomly selected ballots are interpreted without relying on linked machine CVRs | Voter-verifiable paper and a way to select and retrieve ballots | Statistical evidence supporting or challenging the reported outcome at a preset risk limit |
| Ballot-level comparison RLA | Each selected paper ballot is compared with its corresponding CVR | Paper ballots, linkable CVRs, a manifest, and secure custody | Statistical evidence based on paper-to-CVR agreement |
| Batch-level comparison RLA | Batch-level electronic records are compared with the associated paper ballots | Batch totals, associated paper, and location information | Statistical evidence at the batch level, with sensitivity to discrepancies within a batch |
| Full recount | Every properly cast ballot in the relevant contest is retabulated | All ballots and the recount procedures required by law | A new tabulation that can change the official result |
The EAC’s national survey describes procedural, traditional, risk-limiting, tiered, and combined approaches. There is no single U.S. national audit standard; state and local law determines which method applies, when it occurs, and what happens when discrepancies are found.
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What is a risk-limiting audit?
An RLA is a statistical audit designed to provide a prespecified chance of correcting a wrong reported outcome. The election authority sets a risk limit before the audit. The risk limit is the largest statistical probability, under the audit’s assumptions, that an incorrect reported outcome is not corrected by the audit.
For example, the EAC uses a 5% risk limit to illustrate the concept: if the reported outcome is wrong, the procedure has at most a 5% chance of failing to correct it under the example’s conditions, and at least a 95% chance of correction. That is an explanatory example, not a universal setting or a measured success rate for every election.
The risk limit is not the probability that the reported winner is wrong. It also does not prove that every ballot was counted correctly, detect every error, or guarantee that the paper record reflects voter intent. It describes the audit’s chance of correcting a wrong outcome if the outcome is wrong and the procedure’s assumptions hold.
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There is no universal RLA sample count. NIST explains that the reported margin of victory typically affects the initial sample: a close contest generally requires more evidence than a contest with a wide margin. The audit method, contest structure, ballot records, risk limit, and discrepancies found in the sample also matter. If discrepancies are larger than the method allows, the sample expands under the adopted procedure and can ultimately become a full hand count.
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Three RLA forms
- Ballot-polling: randomly selected ballots are read directly. This can be practical when electronic CVRs cannot be efficiently linked to individual ballots.
- Ballot-level comparison: each selected paper ballot is matched to its CVR. This uses more detailed electronic records and can require fewer sampled ballots when the linkage is reliable.
- Batch-level comparison: paper and electronic records are compared by batch. It is appropriate when the system can associate records at the batch level rather than for individual ballots.
Audit versus recount: the difference that matters
An audit examines evidence or process to determine whether the reported result is supported under a defined method. It may inspect procedures, a sample of ballots, CVR-to-paper matches, or batches. It does not necessarily count every ballot.
A recount retabulates every properly cast ballot in the contest covered by the recount order. NIST notes that a full recount is lengthy and manual, and the manual process can itself introduce errors. Unlike an audit’s statistical conclusion, a recount produces a new tabulation and may change the official result. The two terms should not be used interchangeably.
How paper records verify machine results
- Independent interpretation: reviewers read the human-readable paper rather than simply rerunning the same software.
- Record matching: where CVRs are available and linkable, the paper selection is compared with the electronic record attributed to that ballot.
- Discrepancy analysis: differences are logged and evaluated according to the audit’s rules. A discrepancy can result from voter-mark interpretation, scanning, data entry, configuration, or custody problems; its meaning depends on the context and method.
- Statistical or procedural decision: officials determine whether the evidence satisfies the audit requirement, whether more ballots must be examined, or whether corrective action is required.
Because voter privacy is essential, the records must be linkable for auditing without revealing an individual’s selections. Systems therefore need careful separation between ballot identity and voter identity, secure storage, controlled access, and documented retrieval.
What audits can—and cannot—prove
They can provide
- Evidence that sampled paper records agree with reported machine results under the selected procedure.
- Evidence that required handling, reconciliation, and reporting steps were followed when a procedural audit covers them.
- A statistically defined chance of correcting a wrong reported outcome in an RLA.
- Information that can trigger expanded sampling, a hand count, investigation, or other remedies under local rules.
They cannot provide by themselves
- A guarantee that the reported winner is correct or that every error would be detected.
- Proof that a paper record reflects what the voter intended if the record was printed incorrectly or the voter did not have a meaningful opportunity to review it.
- An equivalent independent check in a paperless system merely because electronic totals were counted twice.
- A substitute for canvassing, certification, recount law, election-security controls, or chain-of-custody procedures.
Why jurisdictions use different rules
Election administration is decentralized. State statutes, regulations, local procedures, voting equipment, ballot formats, contest types, and available records differ. The EAC’s national survey, published December 23, 2025, states that there is no national auditing standard. Its report also recorded more than 68 post-election audit bills introduced in 29 states in 2021, with at least nine signed into law at the time of publication. That is a historical legislative count—not a current count of states requiring audits and not evidence of audit effectiveness.
NIST’s audit material and its “Gentle Introduction” explain general RLA principles, but the NIST audit use case is archived voting-project material rather than a statement of every jurisdiction’s current rule. For a specific election, consult the state or local election office for the audit type, risk limit, dates, eligible contests, public observation rules, and treatment of discrepancies.
Questions voters commonly ask
Are election-night totals final?
Usually not. Election-night numbers are preliminary or unofficial while officials canvass valid ballots, reconcile records, resolve eligible challenges, conduct required audits or recounts, and certify the result. The timing and terminology depend on jurisdiction.
Does every ballot get audited?
No. Many audits examine a sample, and the size and selection method vary. An RLA can expand its sample when the evidence is not sufficient, potentially reaching a full hand count; a separate recount may cover every ballot when legally ordered.
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No. In the EAC’s illustration, 5% is the maximum chance that the audit fails to correct a wrong reported outcome under the stated assumptions. It is not a finding that the election had a 5% chance of being wrong.
Can a paper ballot be audited if it cannot be located?
Not reliably. A manifest, custody records, and retrieval procedures are needed to identify the selected ballot and show that it remained in the authorized chain of custody.
Where can I find the rule for my election?
Ask the state or local election office administering the contest. It can identify the governing law, audit method, schedule, records available for public inspection, and procedures for observing or challenging the process.
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