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Data centers use water most directly when cooling systems evaporate it to carry heat away, especially in cooling towers. But a facility’s local impact cannot be inferred from a national average or a single estimate of water used per computing task: the source, amount, timing, cooling design, electricity supply and conditions in the surrounding water system all matter.
Why data centers need cooling
Servers use electricity to process and store information, and nearly all of that electricity becomes heat. Cooling equipment moves the heat away from IT equipment and releases it to the surrounding environment. A facility may use air handlers and chilled-water loops, chillers, cooling towers, economizers or dry coolers, often combining methods as weather and computing loads change.
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The central water trade-off is that some cooling systems use evaporation to reject heat, while others rely more heavily on air. Evaporation can reduce the energy needed for cooling, but it consumes water at the site. Air-cooled approaches can reduce that direct water use while requiring more energy; the balance depends on system design and climate. These system descriptions and trade-offs are covered in Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory’s 2024 U.S. data-center report.
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In a cooling tower, some circulating water evaporates as heat is released. Operators add makeup water to replace that loss. Some water is also drained as blowdown to control the buildup of dissolved minerals. The amount of makeup water, evaporation and blowdown depends on the system and how it is operated.
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How air-based options change the balance
Air-side economizers use favorable outdoor conditions to reduce mechanical cooling. Dry coolers transfer heat to ambient air; some systems may use adiabatic assistance, adding water to improve performance in certain conditions. A system can therefore use little water in one operating mode or season and more in another. “Air-cooled” or “water-cooled” alone does not describe every operating condition.
Direct water use is not the whole water footprint
Direct, on-site water use is water used at the facility, including for cooling and potentially other needs. Indirect water use is water consumed in generating the electricity the data center uses. Power plants and other generation sources can consume water, so some of a facility’s water footprint occurs away from its property. The electricity mix affects this indirect component. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory’s 2024 report distinguishes these parts of data-center water use.
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Keep withdrawals and consumption separate when evaluating either part. A withdrawal is water taken from a source; consumption is water not returned to that source in the same way or time, including water lost through evaporation. A facility’s withdrawal figure alone does not say how much water is consumed or what happens to water that is discharged.
What national and workload figures can—and cannot—tell you
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory’s 2024 report estimates that direct water consumption by U.S. data centers was about 20 billion liters per year in 2014 and about 65 billion liters per year in 2023. These are rounded national modeled estimates, not measurements of a particular facility or community. The report also presents low and high projection scenarios for later years; the national figures should not be treated as a forecast for a local site.
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A 2025 review by Nuoa Lei, Jun Lu, Arman Shehabi and Eric R. Masanet reports more than 10,000-fold variation in workload-level water consumption. The authors attribute the spread to differences in water consumed per kilowatt-hour of server electricity and in workload efficiency. That finding is a reason not to treat one universal “water per AI prompt” number as a reliable estimate for a facility: the result depends on how the work is performed and where and how its electricity and cooling are supplied.
How to read WUE without mistaking it for a local impact measure
The U.S. Department of Energy’s Federal Energy Management Program defines water-use effectiveness (WUE) as annual site water use in liters divided by annual IT equipment energy use in kilowatt-hours. It is a facility-level intensity metric: it helps relate site water use to IT energy use.
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WUE does not identify whether the water comes from a locally scarce source, whether use is sustainable in that watershed, or how much water is consumed to generate electricity. To compare facilities or designs, consider WUE alongside absolute withdrawals and consumption, water source, location, seasonal and peak demand, electricity-related water use, cooling system and energy use.
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What a nearby community should ask about a proposed facility
National totals and workload averages cannot establish the effect of one facility on one community. A local assessment needs facility disclosures, utility and watershed information, and applicable permits. Residents, local officials and utilities can use these questions to identify the information needed:
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- Where will the water come from? Ask whether the facility will use potable municipal water, reclaimed wastewater, surface water, groundwater or another source, and which water system or basin supplies it.
- How much will it withdraw and consume? Request both figures, not a single undifferentiated “water use” estimate. Ask for annual totals and monthly or seasonal demand, including peak demand and expected use during drought conditions.
- Which cooling systems will operate, and when? Ask what cooling equipment and operating modes are proposed, when evaporative or adiabatic modes are expected to run, and the associated annual and peak water demands.
- What happens to discharge, and what limits apply? Establish where blowdown or other facility water will go, and identify relevant discharge and withdrawal limits, local water-system capacity, drought plans, watershed conditions and competing uses.
- What water use is associated with the electricity supply? Ask how much water is associated with the electricity serving the facility and where that water use occurs. The answer depends in part on the electricity sources supplying it.
- How will actual performance be reported? Compare disclosed estimates with operating data over time, using the same definitions for withdrawals, consumption, time period and system boundary. Otherwise, unlike figures may be mistaken for a meaningful comparison.
The 2024 LBNL report, DOE FEMP guidance and the 2025 review explain why cooling design and electricity generation both matter, and why water intensity varies. They do not establish the impact of any particular proposed facility; that requires site-specific permit, utility, watershed and facility information.
How to compare two cooling designs or facilities
For a useful comparison, check that figures cover the same boundary and time period. Annual water totals, peak demand and seasonal demand answer different questions, and intensity metrics do not replace absolute volumes. Compare the following together:
Quick Recap
- Direct withdrawals and net consumption, reported separately.
- Water source and basin, including whether the supply is potable, reclaimed, surface water or groundwater.
- Annual, seasonal and peak demand, including drought-period operating assumptions.
- Cooling technology and operating modes, including when evaporation or adiabatic assistance is used.
- Water consumed in electricity generation, with the location and electricity mix made clear.
- Energy use alongside water use, since reducing direct site water use can involve an energy trade-off.
- WUE as a site intensity measure, not as a substitute for these absolute and locational details.
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