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What thermal runaway is and why a data center must treat it as a system hazard
Thermal runaway is a self-heating chain reaction. A cell fails, releases heat and damages adjacent cells; those cells can then fail in sequence. The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) defines it this way:
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“Thermal runaway is a chain reaction where the heat released from the failure of one cell damages nearby cells.” — U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration, Lithium-ion Battery Safety – Hazards.
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OSHA identifies several possible initiators:
- an internal short circuit caused by a manufacturing defect;
- mechanical damage to a cell, module or rack;
- exposure to excessive heat or cold; and
- improper charging.
In a data center, a battery fault is not isolated to a single device. Closely packed cells can transfer heat, a UPS room can contain a large amount of stored energy, and smoke or corrosive gases can threaten people, switchgear and availability systems. A failure can also continue after the visible flame is gone if neighboring cells remain hot.
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Early warning signs
Investigators and operators should treat a rising battery temperature, unexpected battery-management-system (BMS) alarm, venting gas, vapor, smoke or visible fire as escalating conditions. A temperature trend that is abnormal for one module or rack can be more useful than a single absolute reading, so monitoring should preserve history and alarm on rate of change where the equipment supports it.
What a failed lithium-ion battery can release
Thermal-runaway fires can produce hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen cyanide, phosphoryl fluoride, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, black carbon and other hazardous particulates. These products make a battery incident both a fire event and a hazardous-atmosphere event. The emergency plan therefore has to protect responders from inhalation and corrosive exposure, not merely specify how to extinguish flames.
Design out the hazard before equipment arrives
The most reliable controls are selected during facility design, technology selection and every later change to the battery installation. Treat the battery room, UPS, monitoring, ventilation, detection and emergency procedures as one engineered system.
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- Record the application. Identify whether the batteries support UPS ride-through, longer-duration backup or another stationary energy-storage function. Record the required power, expected duration, operating temperature and the total stored energy for each room and enclosure.
- Identify the battery chemistry and architecture. The chemistry, cell format, module arrangement, rack design, enclosure and BMS affect failure behavior, detection points, service access and test evidence. Require the manufacturer to identify the exact configuration covered by its safety documentation.
- Follow the manufacturer’s limits. Use the specified installation, charging, storage, inspection and maintenance instructions. Do not substitute chargers, protection settings, replacement modules or cooling arrangements without written engineering review.
- Coordinate with the authority having jurisdiction (AHJ). The fire official, building official and electrical authority may apply different editions or locally amended requirements. Obtain the adopted code basis before freezing room dimensions or equipment quantities.
2. Use listed and tested systems
Verify whether the complete stationary energy-storage system has an applicable UL 9540 listing, and confirm that the listing covers the battery, power-conversion equipment, controls and enclosure as installed. Where the adopted code calls for it, obtain UL 9540A fire-propagation test evidence for the specific chemistry, module, rack or installation configuration. A test report for a different enclosure or energy capacity is not automatically evidence for the proposed installation.
3. Keep later changes inside the original safety case
Adding racks, replacing a battery type, changing the BMS firmware, moving equipment or altering ventilation can change the fire and explosion analysis. Recheck listing scope, separation, detection coverage, ventilation and emergency access after every material change; do not assume that an existing approval follows the new configuration.
NFPA 855, UL 9540 and UL 9540A: what each one does
These documents answer different questions. They are complementary, not interchangeable.
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| Document or control | What it addresses | How to use it for a data center |
|---|---|---|
| NFPA 855 | Installation requirements for stationary energy-storage systems, including detection, suppression, explosion control, ventilation, gas detection, separation, signage and emergency operations. | Use the edition adopted by the AHJ as the room and system design framework. The current edition status is 2026, but a jurisdiction may enforce another edition or amendments. |
| UL 9540 | Listing of an energy-storage system as an integrated product, including its battery, power-conversion equipment and controls within the evaluated scope. | Check the exact model, enclosure, operating limits and configuration in the listing. A component listing alone does not establish that the complete installation is listed. |
| UL 9540A | Test method that produces evidence about thermal runaway and fire propagation for the tested battery and system configuration. | Submit the relevant report when the adopted code requires propagation evidence or uses it to determine separation, quantity or protection measures. |
| Manufacturer instructions | Specific charging, installation, storage, inspection, service and replacement limits. | Make these instructions part of commissioning, operator training and change control; code compliance does not permit operation outside them. |
Do not use a proposed code change, an internet spacing value or a rule from another jurisdiction as a universal requirement. The AHJ’s adopted edition, the battery chemistry, the listed configuration and the total energy capacity all matter.
Room layout, quantities and separation
Room design should be calculated for the actual battery system rather than copied from a generic battery-room diagram.
Separate people and critical equipment from the battery hazard
Engineer separation from occupied spaces, egress routes, control rooms, generators, fuel sources and other critical equipment. Provide clear access for emergency crews and for removing a failed module without blocking an exit. Place signs that identify the battery technology, electrical hazards, emergency contacts and required protective equipment.
Control energy concentration
Maximum quantities, rack groupings and room boundaries should follow the adopted code and the system’s test evidence. Dividing a large installation into rooms or fire areas may change detection, ventilation and suppression requirements; it is not a substitute for an engineering analysis.
Provide ventilation and explosion control
Battery failures can release flammable or hazardous gases before flames are visible. Ventilation and explosion-relief arrangements must be engineered for the room volume, enclosure design, possible gas release and equipment placement. Coordinate supply and exhaust paths with fire detection, suppression, HVAC shutdowns and electrical equipment so that one control action does not defeat another.
Preserve emergency access
- Keep aisles, doors and turning space clear for responders and battery-handling equipment.
- Locate disconnects and status indicators where responders can identify them without entering an unsafe area.
- Ensure the room can be isolated according to the electrical design and the manufacturer’s instructions.
- Provide current drawings and battery inventories at the fire command location and at the room entrance where permitted by the AHJ.
How to detect a problem before visible fire
Detection should use multiple, independent indications because no one sensor sees every stage of a failure.
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Temperature and BMS monitoring
Use the BMS to monitor cell, module and rack temperatures, voltage imbalance, current, state of charge and internal alarms supported by the equipment. Trend the readings and route critical alarms to a continuously staffed operations function. Confirm during commissioning that a sensor fault, communications failure and loss of power generate distinct alarms rather than silently removing coverage.
Combustible and off-gas detection
Install engineered combustible-gas or off-gas detection when the hazard analysis and adopted code call for it. Active gas-detection tubes and other sampling systems can draw air from the rack or enclosure to a detector, while fixed sensors monitor the room. Select sensor chemistry, placement, calibration interval and alarm thresholds for the expected battery gases and the room’s airflow.
Do not assume an ordinary lower-explosive-limit (LEL) sensor will provide adequate pre-runaway warning. NFPA committee material warns that some LEL sensors may not detect battery off-gas early enough to prevent escalation. The detector must be evaluated for the gases and concentrations expected before thermal runaway, not only for an already flammable mixture.
Composite fire detection
A composite scheme can combine smoke, heat, flame or gas signals so that a single nuisance alarm does not trigger an inappropriate shutdown while a real event is still recognized quickly. The logic, voting arrangement and alarm delays should be documented, tested and approved by the fire-protection engineer and AHJ.
Thermal imaging
Thermal imaging is an additional early-warning method for battery rooms. Use fixed cameras, scheduled surveys or both according to the risk assessment. Define the temperature trend or hotspot criteria that create an alarm, account for the camera’s field of view and emissivity limitations, and verify that racks, cable trays and enclosure doors do not hide cells from the camera.
Detection selection matrix
| Signal | What it can reveal | Important limitation |
|---|---|---|
| BMS temperature and electrical data | Cell imbalance, overheating, abnormal current or a failed sensor | Depends on the BMS design, communications and the sensors installed inside the battery. |
| Off-gas or combustible-gas detector | Gas release before a visible flame or room-wide smoke condition | Requires gas-specific selection, calibration, airflow analysis and code review; an ordinary LEL sensor may be too late. |
| Active sampling tube | Air drawn from selected rack or enclosure locations | Sampling points, pump health and filters must be maintained and tested. |
| Smoke, heat or flame detector | Established fire or rapidly rising heat | May alarm after cell damage has already propagated; placement must account for ventilation and ceiling height. |
| Thermal imaging | Localized hotspots and temperature trends | Requires line of sight, suitable analytics and a response to abnormal readings. |
Suppression, toxic gases and re-ignition
Select the suppression method through the adopted code, the system listing, the manufacturer and the fire-protection engineer. The correct method depends on the chemistry, enclosure, room, energy capacity and propagation-test evidence. Do not specify an agent solely because it is familiar from another type of electrical room.
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Lithium-ion fires can be difficult to extinguish and can propagate to nearby cells. A suppression discharge may control flames while cells remain hot, so the response plan must address cooling, monitoring and the possibility of re-ignition. Only the fire authority and the manufacturer can define the safe isolation and overhaul procedure for the installed system.
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Emergency planning requirements
OSHA expects emergency plans to address battery failures, fires and explosions, hazardous decomposition products and worker training. The plan should define:
- who receives BMS, gas, temperature and fire alarms;
- when operators evacuate and how they account for personnel;
- how the fire department is notified and briefed on battery chemistry, energy capacity and room location;
- which disconnects may be operated remotely or locally, and under what conditions;
- what information responders need about toxic gases and re-ignition;
- where the current drawings, inventories, safety data and manufacturer instructions are kept; and
- how the area is controlled after the initial fire until the system is declared safe.
Operating and maintenance controls
Good design fails if charging, inspection and replacement work are uncontrolled. Put the following controls into written procedures and work permits.
Charging and normal operation
- Use only the approved charger, UPS settings, firmware and battery-management limits.
- Prevent unauthorized changes to state-of-charge limits, thermal limits, alarm thresholds and automatic shutdown logic.
- Keep battery rooms within the manufacturer’s temperature and humidity range and investigate HVAC alarms promptly.
- Do not store combustible materials, tools or packaging in battery clearances.
Inspection and trending
- Review temperature, voltage, current, state of charge and alarm history for abnormal trends.
- Inspect racks, enclosures, cable connections and barriers for impact, corrosion, swelling, leakage or heat damage.
- Test detection, ventilation, suppression interfaces, disconnects and alarm paths on the schedule required by the adopted code and the manufacturer.
- Document each test, failed component, corrective action, responsible person and close-out date.
Damaged or overheating batteries
Quarantine a battery that is swollen, leaking, mechanically damaged, unusually hot, smoking or repeatedly alarming under a written procedure. Do not move or open it unless the manufacturer and emergency authority have established that the action is safe. Isolate the area, restrict access, notify the designated response team and preserve the event data for investigation.
Replacement parts and service
Use approved replacement modules, fuses, sensors, connectors and firmware. Mixing revisions or substituting a visually similar part can invalidate the listing or change charging and protection behavior. Require competent, trained technicians and the personal protective equipment identified by the hazard assessment.
A practical response sequence for an alarm
Adapt this sequence to the site emergency plan and the installed manufacturer’s instructions; it is not a substitute for the AHJ’s procedure.
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- Recognize and classify the alarm. Identify whether it is a temperature trend, BMS fault, off-gas indication, smoke or fire alarm. Treat simultaneous gas and temperature alarms as a developing battery event.
- Protect people first. Stop work, announce the emergency and evacuate or isolate the affected area according to the site plan. Do not enter to investigate a gas or smoke alarm without the required authorization and equipment.
- Notify the response chain. Contact the control room, site emergency coordinator and fire department. Give the room, battery chemistry, rack location, stored-energy capacity and known alarm readings.
- Isolate only as designed. Operate remote or local disconnects only if the emergency plan authorizes the action and it can be done without exposure. Do not defeat BMS, ventilation or detection interlocks to keep equipment online.
- Support the fire authority. Provide drawings, shutdown information, gas hazards and manufacturer guidance. Follow the fire department’s direction on suppression, ventilation, overhaul and re-entry.
- Control re-entry and restart. Keep the area restricted until it has been assessed for toxic atmosphere, hidden heat and damaged neighboring cells. Replace or repair equipment only after the cause is understood and the safety case is restored.
Commissioning and periodic verification
Commissioning should demonstrate the complete chain from a battery condition to a safe operator action.
- Verify the installed battery and UPS match the listed model, chemistry, enclosure and energy capacity.
- Confirm that BMS values, gas sensors, thermal cameras and fire detectors appear at the correct control points with correct time stamps.
- Inject approved test signals for sensor failure, high temperature, gas detection, loss of communications and fire alarm; record the resulting notifications and interlocks.
- Check ventilation and explosion-control functions, including the fail-safe state when power or communications are lost.
- Walk the room with the fire authority or AHJ as required, confirming clearances, signs, egress and responder access.
- Train operators and maintenance staff, then record attendance and competency checks.
Repeat functional tests after software changes, battery replacement, room alterations or any event that could affect detection, ventilation, suppression or shutdown logic.
Common failure modes and how to correct them
| Failure mode | Why it is dangerous | Corrective action |
|---|---|---|
| Relying only on the BMS | A cell may release off-gas or heat outside the monitored parameter set, or communications may fail. | Add independent, engineered gas, fire and thermal detection and prove alarm routing. |
| Using a generic LEL sensor | The sensor may not respond early enough to pre-runaway off-gas. | Evaluate the expected gases and select a detector and sampling arrangement for early warning. |
| Copying spacing from another project | Energy capacity, chemistry, enclosure and local code adoption may differ. | Recalculate separation and quantity limits for the actual listed configuration and AHJ edition. |
| Adding racks without a code review | More stored energy can exceed room, ventilation, detection or propagation assumptions. | Use formal change control and obtain updated engineering and AHJ approval. |
| Replacing modules with unapproved parts | Charging, protection and listing assumptions may no longer apply. | Use approved parts and document the replacement and post-work tests. |
| Ventilation that conflicts with detection or suppression | Airflow can delay detection, spread gases or defeat a suppression sequence. | Commission the controls together and test normal, alarm and power-loss states. |
| Re-entering after flames disappear | Hot neighboring cells can reignite and toxic gases can remain. | Require fire-authority clearance, atmospheric assessment and thermal monitoring before re-entry. |
What is and is not known about incident frequency
Authoritative sources do not establish a data-center-specific thermal-runaway incident rate, failure probability or universal percentage. Risk decisions should therefore use the actual battery design, test evidence, energy capacity, room arrangement, detection performance and operating history rather than an unsupported probability.
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Before approving a design or purchase, require written answers to these questions:
- What chemistry, cell format, module arrangement and total energy capacity are being installed?
- Is the complete system covered by a current UL 9540 listing, and does the listing match the proposed enclosure and controls?
- What UL 9540A evidence applies to the exact configuration, and how does it affect separation or propagation controls?
- Which NFPA 855 edition and local amendments has the AHJ adopted?
- How are temperature, BMS faults, off-gas, smoke, heat and flame detected independently?
- Has the detection design considered the warning time available before a flammable mixture or cell-to-cell propagation?
- How are ventilation, explosion control, suppression, HVAC shutdown and electrical isolation coordinated?
- Can responders reach, identify and isolate the installation without blocking egress or entering an unassessed atmosphere?
- What written procedure governs a swollen, leaking, damaged or overheating battery?
- When were the last alarm, ventilation, suppression and emergency-response tests completed, and are corrective actions closed?
A data center is best protected when these answers are part of the design record, commissioning package, operator training and change-control process—not just a line item on a procurement checklist.
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